# George Roerich. Trails to the Inmost Asia

## XI. Ja Lama, the Militant Priest

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The vastnesses of inner Asia give rise sometimes to strange personalities, who exercise
a mysterious influence on their fellow men. I shall relate in the present chapter the
story of Ja Lama, reincarnation of Amursana, the great west Mongolian leader of the
eighteenth century. Ten-pei Jal-tsen (bsTan-pa'i rgyal-mtshan) or simply Ja Lama was
one of the characteristic and leading figures of the Mongol National Revolution in
1911-12. His life is veiled in mystery and no one knows exactly where he came from and
what his ambitions were. It is extremely difficult to piece together all the existing
information about his life, so varied were his activities and so extensive were his
travels. The arena of his activity was the whole of Asia, from Astrakhan to Peking and
from Urga to distant India. I succeeded in collecting information about him and his life
from Mongol and Tibetan lamas and laymen whom fate brought into contact with the dreaded
warrior-priest. This singular personality for some thirty-five years hypnotized the
whole of greater Mongolia. Even at present, some six years after the death of the man,
Mongols feel an unholy dread of him and worship him as a militant incarnation of one of
their national leaders. I have often been asked by Mongols in Khalkha Mongolia and in
Tsaidam, whether the man was a burkhan or "divine being," or a mighty brigand
chief, incarnation of a powerful demon. The simple-minded nomads are still unable to
decide this question and various are the explanations put forth.

Although Ja Lama's activity, strange as it was, reminds us more of the life of a
great brigand chief, we must say that the man had some imagination and that he tried to
work along national lines.

This fantastic personality was a very versatile man. He built castles in the heart of
the south Mongolian Gobi, studied abstruse treatises on Buddhist metaphysics, personally
trained his men in the science of war, and dreamed of conquest and the regeneration of
Mongolian tribes.

He is credited with having possessed miraculous power which, however, did not help him
when he was shot dead by a Mongol officer. A portrait of him was given by F. Ossendowski
in his *Men, Beasts, and Gods* where he appears as lama avenger under the name of
Tushe-Gun Lama.

His real name was Pal-den (dPal-ldan). He was born in the Astrakhan Province of southern
Russia and belonged to the Baga Dörböt *ulus* or tribe. In his early boyhood he
was brought to Mongolia, and entered as a novice in the great Lamasery of Dolon-nor on
the Chinese border. From here he traveled to far distant Tibet and spent many years at
the Go-mang (mGo-mang) College or *da-tshang* of the great Lhasan Monastery of
Dre-pung ('Bras-dpung), where most of the Mongolian lamas reside.

It was probably during his stay in Tibet that he visited India, and the holy places of
Buddhism. His knowledge of Tibetan monasteries and life was vast and he had many stories
to tell about his fights with the Golok brigands.

From his youth, he manifested an ambitious, impetuous, and cruel character. It is
generally said that he killed his roommate in the monastery because of a dispute and had
to flee from Lhasa in order to escape from the stern monastic law. This fact is
generally known in Tibet and Mongolia. It seems that the murder was the crucial point of
his life for from then on begins his life as an errant warrior-monk, full of wonderful
adventures, messianic prophecies, and cruel deeds.

People who knew him well, affirm that his knowledge of Buddhist metaphysics and secret
Tantric teachings was unusually vast and it seems that he enjoyed a high reputation
among the high lamas of Mongolia. According to his own words, he served as one of the Ta
Lamas or Heads of Departments in the Chang-skya Hutukhu *yamen* at Peking, a
learned ecclesiastical institution intrusted with the fixing of the calendar and other
astronomical and metaphysical questions.

Ja Lama had many stories to tell about his extensive travels in India, China, Tibet, and
Mongolia. He was well versed in the Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese languages and knew
some Sanskrit and Russian. Lamas told me that he had studied at the Faculty of
Jurisprudence of the St. Petersburg University, but I doubt the correctness of this
report. In any case, his knowledge seemed unusually vast, and he possessed reliable
information about the countries he professed to have visited. Mongols generally affirm
that he had a tremendous will power and could easily hypnotize people.

Ja Lama's first public appearance in outer Mongolia dates back to 1890. Professor
Pozdneev in his valuable *Mongolia and the Mongols* gave a brief account of the
early activity of the lama. During his visit to the important Lamasery of
Amur-baishalantu, he heard from a local petty official the story about a great lama who
appeared in Mongolia in the autumn of 1890 and traveled from Dzin-dzilik, frontier
station to Uliassutai and from there to Urga. The lama wore a fur cap surmounted by a
golden *vajra* and freely distributed gold and golden coins to poor people. He
said everywhere that he was Ten-pei Jal-tsen, son of Temür-sana, who was in his turn the
son of the famous Amursana. In other places he maintained that he was not only the
descendant of Amursana but also his incarnation and that he reappeared to liberate
Mongolia from the Chinese yoke. The nomads easily believed his words and crowds of
people gathered on *urtön* or relay stations to greet the Incarnated Lama. They
kotowed before him and paid him deep veneration.

Two influential Mongolian Incarnate Lamas, Jahantsa Hutukhtu and Ilgusan Hutukhtu,
joined his cause and were afterward suspected by the Chinese authorities. In order to
free these high church dignitaries, two simple lamas took upon themselves the guilt and
were sentenced to death by the Chinese. On the eve of their execution the lamas poisoned
themselves.

The Chinese authorities, who became uneasy at the spread of Ja Lama's propaganda,
approached the Imperial Russian Consul in Urga, with the request to arrest him. The
Chinese request was granted and the adventurous monk was arrested on reaching Urga and
deported to Kiakhta. For the next year nothing is heard of Ja Lama. It appears that his
forced stay in Russia was a very brief one and that he managed to escape to Tibet or
southern Mongolia, for about the end of 1891 he reappeared in outer Mongolia, traveling
on two magnificent white camels, and became known among the Mongols as Hoir-temete Lama
or "the lama with two camels." He was again arrested by Chinese authorities
and transported to Uliassutai for further investigation. He refused to answer questions,
but produced a passport in the name of the Astrakhan Kalmuck Ten-pei Jal-tsen.

The Chinese contented themselves with the examination of his papers and finally let him
go without examining his baggage. From Uliassutai, Ja Lama went to Kobdo, and spent
there several months. From Kobdo he traveled back to Uliassutai and then to Urga where
he was for the second time arrested and deported to Kiakhta.

After this date he disappears for a period of ten years. Nothing is heard about him
during this period but it seems that he made frequent trips to the Tsaidam and
northeastern Tibet. The Kurluk Mongols of Tsaidam remember having frequently seen him
traveling by the west Tsaidam route through Mahai with two pack ponies and only one
attendant. It seems that he did not sever his connections with Tibet and that he paid
subsequent visits to the capital of Tibet.

He reappeared in 1900 as guide of General P. K. Kozlov's expedition to the Kham
Province in Tibet. At that time he was known by the name of She-rap (Shes-rab) Lama. The
expedition was stopped on the No-mo chu by Tibetan authorities, notwithstanding the fact
that General Kozlov carried presents from the Emperor of Russia to the Dalai Lama.
General Kozlov deputed She-rap Lama, alias Ja Lama, to proceed to negotiate with the
Tibetan authorities. It seems that Ja Lama never rejoined the expedition and somehow
found his way to Karashahr in Chinese Turkestan where he stopped with the local Torgut
Prince. From Karashahr, he traveled to Kobdo and Urga, from where he was again sent in
search of the Kozlov Expedition.

After this he disappears for another ten years. We are in complete ignorance as to his
doings during this period. In 1910 he suddenly reappeared in Karashahr. According to the
statement of Mr. Kryajev, a Russian merchant trading in Karashahr, Ja Lama's outward
appearance was considerably changed. Formerly he wore a beard, now he was clean-shaven.
Under his yellow lama coat, he wore some sort of European military uniform. After a
prolonged stay in Karashahr, he departed for Kobdo and in the spring of 1912 he suddenly
appeared at Hangeltsik in the camp of the Dörböt Prince Tümen-Gun.

It was said since 1890 that Ja Lama was an incarnation of the great Amursana (who died
in 1755 A.D.). An ancient prophecy was whispered that at the time of the new war of
liberation between Mongols and Chinese, a leader would appear under the name of Ten-pei
Jal-tsen, who would be the true incarnation of Amursana and would restore the old
kingdom of the Oirat. All who know the magic influence exercised by prophecies among
Buddhists of inner Asia, will easily understand the success of Ja Lama. His reappearance
in the Kobdo district caused a great stir among the nomad population. Crowds of people
gathered round the new leader, who continued to preach fervently the holy war against
the oppressing Chinese.

In a short time Ja Lama collected round himself a strong body of armed men and prepared
himself to take an active part in the fighting for autonomous Mongolia.

The fortresses of Urga and Uliassutai fell, and were occupied by Mongol detachments. A
summons was sent to the Manchu Governor of Kobdo to hand over the keys of the fortress
gates. The officer refused to comply with the orders from Urga and closed the gates of
the fort. He had at his disposal some thousand soldiers and Chinese militiamen and
prepared himself to fight the advancing troops. On receiving the answer from the
Governor of Kobdo, Ja Lama proclaimed war against the Chinese garrison there.

A huge mounted horde of Mongols, Uriangkhis, Dörböts, and Torguts, some five thousand
strong, was quickly mustered by Ja Lama, who led them against the fortress of Kobdo. The
steppes of Mongolia again witnessed squadrons of cavalry marching toward the sunset.
Here were Khalkha Mongols in their peculiar high hats, in yellow and purple coats, armed
with Mauser carbines and Berdane rifles, Chakhar Mongols in small round caps and yellow
coats and cartridge belts heavily ornamented with silver, Soyots from Uriangkhai in
pointed fur caps and fur coats, Torguts from the Bulugun with blue handkerchiefs on
their heads and green coats and leather sandals. The advancing troops were officially
commanded by Prince Surun-Gun, but in reality the whole undertaking was inspired and
directed by Ja Lama. This happened in May, 1912.

On August 6, 1912, the fortress of Kobdo fell and the city was burned and its Chinese
inhabitants massacred. The Russian Consul and his guard succeeded in saving some of the
Chinese from the wrath of the conqueror, and deported them to Biisk in the Russian Altai
for further transportation to China. After the destruction of Kobdo, and the massacre of
the Chinese colony, some ten Chinese and Mohammedan traders were slaughtered in a secret
ritual under orders of Ja Lama. Ten human breasts were cut open and the hearts torn out
by Ja Lama himself who afterward consecrated the Mongol war banners with human blood and
sprinkled it over the troops.

The Chinese authorities of the adjacent Hsin-chiang Province were greatly alarmed by the
success of the militant priest and troops were dispatched in all haste from
Ku-ch'eng and Shara-sümä. They did not reach Kobdo, but camped at a place called
Tsagan Tonke, some two hundred miles southwest of Kobdo, and remained there for the
winter. The Mongol troops under Ja Lama and his allies remained in a fortified camp on
the Mongol side of the Ulan-daban Pass but dispersed in 1913 after the withdrawal of the
Chinese troops. The German traveler H. Consten in his recently published book on
Mongolia, *Die Weideplätze der Mongolen*, Vol. II, gives a vivid description of
the Mongol fortified camp at the Ulan-daban. He did not meet Ja Lama personally but was
very much impressed by the rigid discipline in the camp and the general cleanliness and
order of the place, quite unusual among Mongols. He was told that it was under the
complete control of Ja Lama, who took strong measures to keep it clean and the troops
disciplined.

For his great services rendered to the new Mongol state, Ja Lama received the title of
*Tushe-Gun*, and subsequently was created *Nomun Khan Hutukhtu*. An entire
*khoshun* was assigned to him on the Kobdo River, some sixty miles from the town
of Kobdo, and his allies presented him with a great quantity of horses, cattle and even
men. He thus became the military governor of Kobdo, and one of the strongest princes of
all Mongolia.

In his *khoshun* he introduced a number of innovations and in this the
many-sidedness of his character found expression. He introduced among his followers
agriculture and even ordered some agricultural machinery from Russia. He ordered his men
to build permanent houses, to collect hay for the winter months and to wear Russian
boots. He established several schools and organized a model monastery with strict rules.
He limited the number of lamas by drafting many of them into his troops. He trained his
troops according to European methods. He tried to improve the breed of Mongol horses and
horned cattle and ordered horses and cattle from Russia.

He was extremely cruel to his enemies and seldom trusted his followers. It is told about
him that he personally tortured prisoners by cutting strips of skin from their backs and
branding them with a red hot iron. The Ulankom Monastery once revolted against his
innovations and several lamas were flogged to death. He tortured a Russian merchant in
order to obtain an avowal from him. All the Mongol princes in the Kobdo region dreaded
him and even attended him as ordinary servants, saddling his horses and holding the
stirrup for him.

Ja Lama continued to rule his *khoshun* until 1914 when a misunderstanding with
the officer commanding the Russian consular guard in Kobdo resulted in his sudden arrest
and deportation to Russia.

Early in 1914 reports were received by Russian authorities confirming stories of
cruelties performed by Ja Lama. On February 6, 1914, Captain Bulatov was ordered to
proceed with half a squadron of Siberian Cossacks to the Kobdo district in western
Mongolia and to bring to an end the Ja Lama movement. After several successful fights,
the Cossack detachment succeeded in capturing Ja Lama himself and checked for a time his
ruthless rule. The Cossacks brought back with them two complete human skins of persons
who had been flayed by orders of Ja Lama. One of these skins belonged to Khaisan, a
Kirghiz headman in the Mongolian Altai. Ja Lama and the Kirghiz tribesmen had had a feud
for several years over some grazing grounds in the higher mountain valleys of the Altai.
The bitter tribal warfare continued until the local Kirghiz headman was captured and
imprisoned by Ja Lama. The family of the prisoner offered at once a large ransom and Ja
Lama agreed to have him released. When the mother of the Kirghiz headman arrived in Ja
Lama's camp bringing with her all her personal possessions—gold, silver, precious
stones, and costly furs, the Mongol chief greeted her most kindly and requested her to
wait. While he was chatting with the woman and examining the rich ransom, his men were
flaying Khaisan alive. The operation was begun with his feet and the executioners had
orders to proceed with their work slowly in order to finish with the skinning while the
sufferer was still alive. But the man died during the operation. The skin was stretched
on a log of wood and delivered to the unfortunate mother. The old woman lost her mind at
the sight and the broad, dark face of the bandit grinned with satisfaction.

Such is the official story of one of Ja Lama's famous deeds of cruelty which is
still told under the nomad tents of the Mongolian Altai.

He was first imprisoned in the Tomsk Prison for one year and afterward exiled to the
Yakut region. From there he was transferred to Astrakhan where he remained imprisoned
until 1918. The Revolution in 1917-18 liberated him and he at once reappeared in
Mongolia on the Selenga. He was acclaimed by his former followers and after visiting his
friend and helper, Jahantsa Hutukhtu, of Uliassutai, he settled for some time in the
camp of his former assistant, Jal-tsen Beise in southwest Mongolia.

The Urga Government felt rather uneasy about the reappearance of the militant monk and
issued orders for his immediate arrest. Ja Lama was forced to leave Mongolian territory.
He chose for his new camp a secluded place on the northern slopes of the Baga Ma-tzu
Shan some 250 miles south of Yum-beise-sümä in the very heart of the Mongolian Gobi.
Many of his former followers flocked to his new camp and he soon had about 500 tents
around him.

From this date the dreaded robber activity of Ja Lama and his well-armed bands begin.
The national leader of Mongolia, the lama-avenger, became a robber chief. He organized a
strong body of well-armed men, regardless of their past, and all sorts of outlaws,
Chinese deserters, Mongol brigands, Tibetan contrabandists, Kirghiz horse thieves and
Torgut hunters, gathered under his banners. With such a force at his disposal, Ja Lama
stirred up constant troubles on the southwestern Mongolian border. His mounted
detachments were persistently on the move, harassing Mongol encampments and spying upon
governmental officials and their moves. None was allowed to follow unmolested the
caravan route Yum-beise-An-hsi. Robber bands searched the neighboring country day and
night and strong-armed posts were stationed in the narrow gorges where the numerous
caravans had to pass. For several years the trade route was considered closed because of
the activity of Ja Lama and his followers.

In 1919 the An-fu troops of China under General Hsü occupied outer Mongolia. Chinese
garrisons were stationed in Urga, Uliassutai, and even penetrated into Russian
territory, and occupied the frontier towns of Kiakhta and Troitskosavsk, killing many of
the civil population.

The Mongols could not tolerate the new invasion of their territory. Detachments of
Mongol partisans began the fight, and Ja Lama again took an active part. In the spring
of 1920 his troops attacked the Chinese in southwestern Mongolia and inflicted severe
losses. It is said that Ja Lama coöperated with Baron Ungern von Sternberg, who in
January, 1921, defeated the Chinese troops and occupied Urga.

After the defeat of Baron Ungern's troops by the Mongol National forces in the
summer of 1921, and the establishment of the new order in Mongolia, Ja Lama became the
central figure among the supporters of the old order. He opened friendly relations with
the Chinese authorities of Hsin-chiang and Koko-khoto and had friendly intercourse with
the late Prince of the Kurluk Mongols in northern Tsaidam.

His influence was still great among the nomads of the Kobdo region, and he was planning
a campaign against Urga in order to crush the opposition of the Mongol Government to his
warlike plans. He still cherished the hope to reconstruct a mighty state in inner Asia,
including Mongolia, Tibet, and Chinese Turkestan.

In order to strengthen his position, he constructed a fortified castle of strange
architecture, a mixture of Turkestan and Tibetan styles, surrounded by walls and watch
towers, that crowned the neighboring hills. The place is known to Mongols by the name of
Ten-pei Jal-tsen baishin or "The House of Ten-pei Jal-tsen." Prisoners were
employed in erecting the fortress, a striking achievement considering the remoteness of
the place. It is situated on the northern slopes of the Baga Ma-tzu Shan Mountains. The
surrounding country is very hilly and is an ideal hiding place for robber bands. Scant
vegetation on the stream banks and at the foot of the hills, afforded sufficient grazing
to the herds of cattle and horses belonging to Ja Lama and his followers.

The garrison of the fortress consisted of some 500 men more or less disciplined and
trained. Most of the men were armed with old Berdane rifles, German Mauser carbines, and
automatic pistols, and some Japanese Arisaka rifles, which they obtained from the
Chinese. After the establishment of a Mongol government conducted by the Mongol
People's Party, many supporters of the old *régime* in Mongolia, and some of
the Mongol Princes, joined the troops of Ja Lama and became known by the name of Tsagan
Mongol or White Mongols.

Everyone dreaded the daring lama, who combined in himself the fame of a military leader
with the humility of a monk. He used to bless and give religious admonitions to people,
while his men were ruthlessly massacring pilgrims.

Caravan animals and goods were usually confiscated and the personnel of the caravan
massacred. Those who were left alive became slaves of Ja Lama and his followers. A
Mongol lama told me how on his way from Mongolia to Tibet, in 1920, his party was
suddenly attacked by Ja Lama. All the laymen present in the caravan were murdered on the
spot and all the arms and goods taken away. Only the various lamas were allowed to
continue their way on foot, destitute of everything. Several of them died afterward,
unable to stand privations and reach the inhabited parts of Kansu.

A Tibetan trade agent, who went to Mongolia to trade on behalf of the Tashi-lhun-po
labrang, was caught on his way to Yum-beise, and imprisoned in the fortified camp of Ja
Lama. He never recovered his freedom but died in captivity. A survivor of his caravan
told me that most of the caravan men had been slaughtered and that those who were spared
had their ears cut off and had to work as Ja Lama's slaves.

In such a way Ja Lama collected round himself a mixed crowd of people. Tibetan officials
and traders, Mongol pilgrims, lamas, and laymen, political enemies of Ja Lama, Chinese
traders from An-hsi and Koko-khoto, Kirghiz headmen from the Mongolian Altai—all had to
work erecting buildings and constructing towers and walls in the burning heat of the
Mongolian desert. Some of the prisoners spent years in the service of Ja Lama and even
joined his troops in order to escape from the barbarous treatment. Others succeeded in
escaping, but a great many died from hardships, for not all could stand the treatment at
the hands of Ja Lama's men.

A Tsaidam Mongol once told me the story of his captivity and escape from the camp of Ja
Lama. He was traveling with a Tibetan caravan of traders to whom he had hired his
camels, across the Gobi some hundred miles northeast of An-hsi. Everything went well and
they hoped to come out safely, when suddenly a band of mounted men swept from the
neighboring hills. For a few moments everything was turmoil. The brigands dashed here
and there on their swift horses, killing the camel drivers, and driving off the caravan
animals. The head of the caravan, a wealthy Tibetan merchant, was one of the first to
fall while defending his belongings. Some of the Mongol drivers were spared and taken to
the robbers' camp. For several months they had to work for Ja Lama collecting fuel
and preparing bricks for his large building projects. Many of them, unaccustomed to hard
labor, fell ill and died. Others contrived to escape. My informant stabbed one of the
guards and escaped with the guard's rifle. The country was well known to him and he
had no difficulty in hiding himself. Such are the stories told about Ja Lama and the
prison life in his camp.

In September, 1922, an extensive political plot was discovered in Urga and a number of
influential persons including several former ministers were arrested. The official
Mongolian *communiqué* states that all these persons had secret relations with Ja
Lama, with the intention of arranging an advance of the Chinese troops.

After again defeating the troops under Baron Ungern, the Mongols, in order to pacify
their southwestern border, decided to exterminate Ja Lama and his bands. A
Russo-Mongolian detachment searched the Gobi for him and even penetrated as far as the
Nan Shan, north of the Koko-nor. In the beginning of 1923, the Urga Government
dispatched several squadrons of cavalry under the command of Balden Dorje (dPal-ldan
rDo-rje) a noted Mongolian military leader, to check the movement of Ja Lama. The troops
expected to meet with a strong resistance and advanced carefully in order not to alarm
the enemy's posts. Balden Dorje decided to take the fortress by stratagem, instead
of storming it. Leaving his troops encamped some two days' journey from the fortress
of Ja Lama, Balden Dorje and a soldier rode to the camp. They pretended to be pilgrims
and requested to be allowed to present a ceremonial scarf to Ja Lama. For some reason
they were allowed to appear before him. They met him in a Mongol tent pitched in the
courtyard of his castle. Balden Dorje approached the lama with a ceremonial scarf and
shot him with a pistol hidden beneath it. Ja Lama fell dead. His followers were unable
to offer resistance, for Ja Lama, in common with many other Asiatic leaders, kept all
the arms and ammunition in his tent and distributed them to his followers only when
needed. The tent with the arsenal was held by Balden Dorje and his companion, and the
panic-stricken followers had no choice but to submit or disperse.

The advancing troops occupied the fortress without a single shot and burned it, for the
ruins of the castle still bear traces of flames. Some of the followers of Ja Lama were
executed, others recognized the authority of the Urga Government. All the property of Ja
Lama, his arms and ammunition, were requisitioned by the Mongol troops. Some 2,000 sheep
were distributed among the slaves of Ja Lama, who were living in utter poverty.

Ja Lama's head was cut off and carried on a lance to Uliassutai, where it was
exhibited to the populace in the bazaar square. Because of its white hair, the severed
head became known under the name of Tsagan Tologoi or "White Head" and a large
crowd of people gathered daily to gaze on it. It afterward found its way to Urga in a
large bottle filled with formaline—a ghastly remnant of the dreaded leader. For some
time it passed from hand to hand and finally disappeared—no one knows where or how.

It was difficult to recognize in the weathered black remnant the head of the strong man
of Mongolia. A broad face, with prominent cheekbones and a flat nose. A rather dark skin
and cropped white hair—such was the likeness of Ja Lama at the time of his death. The
Mongolian Scientific Committee possesses a portrait of Ja Lama, executed by his court
painter. The portrait depicts a middle-aged man of robust build, attired in a gorgeous
coat. Ja Lama was fond of gorgeous attire and has often been seen dressed in a European
uniform underneath a Mongolian coat which he used as an overcoat. The man is dead, but
the memory of him still lives among the nomads of Mongolia.

In our caravan we had a Torgut from Etsin-gol, who had spent several years in the region
of Ma-tzu Shan. He could never explain satisfactorily the reasons for his long stay in
this robber-infested country and some of the Mongols in the caravan had grave doubts
about him. He was a fine rider and, as all Torguts are, a good marksman. These manly
qualities combined in him in some inexplicable way with the greatest cowardice and
uncertain character. One day I heard him singing a song and it seemed to me that he was
singing about Ja Lama. I asked him to repeat the words of the song but he obstinately
refused to do so and said that he knew no songs about him. All my attempts to induce him
to sing proved vain and the man only laughed. As it was his turn to guard the caravan
animals, I had to let him go. He jumped into the saddle and dashed into the steppe
toward the grazing herd. Suddenly his voice resounded singing the very same song about
Ja Lama. I could recognize the melody but not the words. The man refused to sing in our
presence, but out in the open steppe he sang the old robber song about Ten-pei Jal-tsen,
the incarnated Amursana. The song belonged to the desert and it was against the nomad
code to sing it to strangers.