# George Roerich. Trails to the Inmost Asia

## I. Kashmir-Ladak

---



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**March 6, 1925** *Through: Siliguri*

<p>
<a id="t4p-5-N1"></a><span text4placeid:5>
On the sixth of March, 1925, the expedition left the hill station of Darjeeling, and
with it the friendly country of Sikkim. It is always a wonderful experience to travel
down the jungle-clad slopes of the eastern Himalayas. The tropical vegetation and the
endless stream of hill people who wander along the cart road are full of interest to
the traveler.
</span>
<a id="t4p-6-N1"></a><span text4placeid:6>
In complete darkness, we reached Siliguri. The train was rolling over the low-lying
plain of Bengal — jungle-clad and fever-infected marshy tracts, and rice fields
already flooded. Through the blackness of the tropical night, one could see the
strange life proceeding around the glittering lights of numerous fires scattered in
the jungle and in front of small village huts, that stood here and there among palm
trees. Figures in white turbans anddhoti
moved about, and at the railway stations the air resounded with the high-pitched cries
of peddlers selling tea, drinking water, and cigarettes. The country seemed alive with
intense movement screened by the dusky veil of the night.
</span>
</p>

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**March 7, 1925** *Through: Sealdah station*

Early in the morning the train rolled into the large station of Sealdah. A traveler who
comes from the mountain solitudes of the Himalayas is invariably struck by the
semi-European, semi-oriental character of the city. The Calcutta streets, with modern
motor cars, horse carriages, rickshaws, cows, and a multicolored crowd of pedestrians,
seem indeed to be a stream in which East and West mingle in a striking manner. After a
busy and hot day in the great city, including a visit to the headquarters of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, that distinguished institution which is a monument of noble
coöperation between western and eastern scholars, we again entrained on the Punjab Mail
for the long two days' and two nights' journey across the dusty plains of northern
India.

The hot season was already approaching and a peculiar and intense glare hung over the
horizon.

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**March 8, 1925** [Rawalpindi](/#m=9/33.60382/73.04812&l=Gs&p=8/o)

On the evening of the eighth of March we reached Rawalpindi. Several hours before the
cantonment, the train traversed an arid country of sand and stone, cut into numerous
canyons. After a night spent at a local hotel at Rawalpindi we again resumed our route,
but this time in motor cars.

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**March 9, 1925** [Garhi](/#m=9/34.22585/73.60784&l=Gs&p=10/o) *Through: Rawalpindi*

<a id="t4p-8-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:8 -->
Rawalpindi has the atmosphere of alertness of a great military station. Everywhere there
are khaki-clad figures; and the town bazaars throng with the colorful crowd of a border
country. Fine-looking Hazaras and martial Pathans from the frontier move among the
groups of Punjabis and down-country men.

<a id="t4p-10-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:10 -->
The motor road to Srinagar through Murree has been so often described that I need not
dwell too long on this portion of our journey. It is one of the finest motor roads in
the world, and the scenery is at times magnificent. Rising gradually, at Murree the road
reaches the altitude of some seven thousand feet above sea level.

<a id="t4p-10-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:10 -->
We spent the night in the resthouse at Garhi, a small village on Kashmir territory at an
altitude of 2,628 feet. In the evening we admired the Mohammedan festival ofBakr-Id,
when the whole countryside was acclaiming the advent of the spring. Flaming circles of
men brandishing torches were moving about the hillside on the opposite river bank, and
above them towered the somber silhouettes of the mountains. An unforgettable picture of
Indian spring!

<a id="b4p-13-N1"></a><!-- block4placeid:13 -->

**March 10, 1925** *Through: Baramulla, Uri*

<p>
<a id="t4p-11-N1"></a><span text4placeid:11>
Next morning brought us to Uri, a picturesque village and fort situated at an altitude
of 4,370 feet. The mountain landscape near Uri was of outstanding beauty; patches of
snow intensified the deep blue coloring of the surrounding mountains.
</span>
<a id="t4p-321-N1"></a><span text4placeid:321>
After Uri, we passed the ruined temple of Brankutri, similar to the other temples of
Kashmir dating back to the Indian Middle Ages.
</span>
<a id="t4p-12-N1"></a><a id="t4p-568-N1"></a><span text4placeid:12,568>
About noon we drove through the small town of Baramulla. The day was beautifully clear
and we obtained a fine view of the Nanga Parbat, towering to a height of 26,900 feet.
</span>
</p>

For the few miles outside of the city of Srinagar, there runs one of the most beautiful
drives in the world, bordered with rows of high poplars. All around lies the famous
Kashmir Valley, engirded by lofty snowy mountains.

<a id="b4p-13-N2"></a><!-- block4placeid:13 -->

**March 10 — April 15, 1925** [Srinagar](/#m=9/34.08046/74.83218&l=Gs&p=13/o)

About three o'clock in the afternoon we drove into the native city of Srinagar, and were
at once assailed by a motley crowd of Kashmiris, yelling and crying, abusing each other,
offering goods: Kashmiri products, houseboats, shikaras, and other attractions of
Kashmir. It was a sad sight.

We established our headquarters at the Nedou Hotel and at once began our preparation for
the journey to Ladak and the desert lands of Chinese Turkestan, lying beyond the lofty
passes of the Karakorum and Sanju. A difficult and long mountain journey necessitates
protracted preparations and every detail must be thoroughly checked personally; a
journey such as that from Kashmir to Chinese Turkestan over the highest mountain route
in the world, requires unusual forethought and careful consideration. Srinagar is the
last place where such preparations can be made and food supplies obtained. The Kashmiri
artisans are famed for their work and, if supervised, turn out serviceable equipment.
There are a number of native firms in the city which produce excellent winter outfits
and camping furniture. Naturally, the traveler must keep a watchful eye on the execution
of his order. All the expedition supplies had to be packed in yaghtans or wooden boxes covered with leather. Tin or iron boxes are of no use in
mountain travel, for they easily break.

The winter outfit for the cold weather on the mountain passes and the winter in Chinese
Turkestan consisted of fur coats lined with pashmina, Gilgit fur boots, fur
caps, fur socks, and fur sleeping bags. We also ordered several tents of waterproof
Willesden canvas with warm pattoo lining. These tents had to be specially constructed to
withstand the rough traveling and the mountain gales. They consisted of two flies, the
outer fly reaching the ground to prevent the strong wind of the higher uplands from
penetrating beneath and lifting the tent. The tent poles were of thick bamboo with
strong metal joints, and the tent pegs of galvanized iron.

We also decided to buy our own riding horses in order to be self-equipped and
independent of local transport, which is not always reliable. Srinagar is a good horse
market, and one can usually get good animals of the Yarkendi or Badakhshani breed. These
breeds are famous throughout central Asia and are invaluable on long travels. The
Zangskar ponies are good for mountains, but as a rule of uncertain temper and
hard-mouthed.

With the kind help of Mr. Nedou, the proprietor of the local hotel, we soon succeeded in
buying six fine horses which carried us from Kashmir to the confines of the Altai.

The departure was fixed for the beginning of August, and, meanwhile, we decided to use
our free time for a little touring in the Kashmir Valley.

I shall not describe the capital or the valley of Kashmir. Concerning them there is a
voluminous literature, and the antiquities of the country have been studied and
commented upon by such men as Sir Aurel Stein.

<p>
Comparing the beauties of nature, and the unique gardens of Nishad and Shalimar laid out
by the Great Moguls Akbar and Jehangir with the sad realities of the native city of
Srinagar, one is always struck by the deep contrast. We were glad to leave the "Indian
Venice" and to feel ourselves again in the open country of the beautiful valley.
<a id="t4p-532-N1"></a><span text4placeid:532>We hired a large house boat, The Monarch, belonging to a sympathetic
Kashmiri, Sobra Wanganu, and started for a short trip to Vulur Lake.</span>
</p>

<a id="t4p-532-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:532 -->
The trip along the channels offers little of interest. The boat slowly moves past
low-lying banks. The water channels are narrow and the water not always clear. The big
lake of Vulur lies engirded by high mountain ranges and in fine weather wonderful
shadows play on the mountain sides. We landed at Bandipur, a small village with some
commissariat barracks, lying at the head of the Gilgit Road that leads across Gilgit,
Hunza, and Sarikol to Kashgar and the Tarim basin. We experienced a violent windstorm on
the lake, which broke all the ropes by which the boat was secured to the shore and
almost carried it away into the open. The boatmen spent several anxious hours fighting
the storm. The house boats are not seagoing and never venture into the open in windy
weather. The dunga boat, in which our Chinese interpreter and
servants were staying, had its roof carried away by the wind. Since boatmen considered
our position very unsafe, we had to curtail our visit on the lake.

<a id="t4p-532-N3"></a><!-- text4placeid:532 -->
The next day proved to be fine and we had enough time to recross the lake into the
channel. The afternoon was stormy again, but we were not affected by it.

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**April 15 — August 8, 1925** [Gulmarg](/#m=9/34.05765/74.38298&l=Gs&p=14/o)

About the fifteenth of April, we moved to Gulmarg, the hill station of Kashmir. Here, in
the coolness of the mountains, we could conclude our preparations and study the
different problems presented by our coming journey. We arrived early in the season and
the hill station was still covered by snow. For a whole week we experienced tremendous
thunderstorms. The thunder rolled and crashed in the mountains and the lightning swept
round our house in a large circle, illumining the whole neighborhood at night. For
several days we were completely cut off from the outside world and had to keep to our
rooms. Nowhere else did we experience electrical storms of such terrific violence. They
were usually followed by hail, and some of the hailstones were of surprising size.

At Gulmarg we spent the whole of May, June, and July.

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**August 8, 1925** [Ganderbal](/#m=9/34.216495/74.7719431&l=Gs&p=15/o)

By the end of July we had received all our outfit and, on the eighth of August, the
expedition left Gulmarg for Ganderbal on its long journey to Ladak and Chinese
Turkestan.

Ganderbal is conveniently reached by motor cars. It is the starting point of the Ladak
Treaty Route. Our caravans consisted of eighty-two pack ponies which were to carry our
loads up to Dras on the Ladak side of the Zoji Pass—an alarming number considering the
difficulties of obtaining sufficient forage.

We reached Ganderbal late in the evening of the same day, and found our caravan men
already camping in the courtyard of the resthouse. Great camp fires illumined the faces
of the men and the long rows of caravan animals.

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**August 9, 1925** [Kangan](/#m=9/34.26284/74.90392&l=Gs&p=18/o)

<a id="t4p-15-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:15 -->
Next morning, August 9, we rose early but were somewhat delayed by the unloading of the
supplies from the boats which had carried them from Srinagar. The men were new to
caravan work and had to be directed in every detail. Our headman, Wahaba Wanganu, was a
cold-blooded and remarkably efficient man who kept the rest of the expedition servants
well in hand.

<p>
<a id="t4p-16-N1"></a><span text4placeid:16>
Late in the afternoon the whole caravan moved out of Ganderbal. We drove by motor as
far as the little village of Nunner</span>, then
<a id="t4p-17-N1"></a><span text4placeid:17>
mounted our horses and crossed the Sindh near Wayil. The route follows the right bank
of the river for about two miles, and it was a pleasant ride past flowering meadows.
</span>
</p>

<p>
<a id="t4p-18-N1"></a><span text4placeid:18>
Kangan is a small village with a large bungalow, where we found several other
travelers.</span>
The route from Kangan to Baltal at the foot of Zoji Pass has been often described, and I
shall limit myself to a few comments.
</p>

The Leh Treaty Route was made passable for peaceful caravans by the efforts of Colonel
Durand's column in 1891. The Kashmir State takes a great interest in this route, and the
transport and supplies are carefully organized. State granaries and spaciousserais or resthouses for trading caravans are maintained at various stages along the
route.

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**August 10, 1925** [Gund](/#m=9/34.25778/75.08778&l=Gs&p=19/o)

<p>
The route passes Gund and Sonamarg, the summer camping ground of many European visitors.
Fine weather accompanied us up to Sonamarg.
<a id="t4p-19-N1"></a><span text4placeid:19>At Gund we had a sad experience with our horses which only by a lucky chance did not
prove fatal to them. All along the route from Ganderbal to Baltal is a kind of
poisonous grass, locally calledgumai. The horses of the region never touch it, but
strange horses often eat it and perish. Through the negligence of our syces, four of
our best horses ate some of this grass and fell ill in the evening. We tried our best
to help them, but their condition rapidly grew worse. All local remedies were without
avail. Finally, we decided to give them a good dose of bicarbonate of soda. This
worked wonders. By the next morning all four of the animals were all right and were
able to proceed to Sonamarg.</span>
</p>

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**August 11, 1925** [Sonamarg](/#m=9/34.30191/75.2919&l=Gs&p=20/o)

<a id="t4p-20-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:20 -->
On the road we met the first party of Ladakis on their way to Srinagar. They were
dressed in the usual gray homespun—the universal clothing of Tibetan laity. Soon after
our arrival at Sonamarg, which is situated at an altitude of some 8,600 feet, it began
to rain heavily and continued to do so for the whole night. We had to stay at the dak
bungalow for the entire morning, starting only about two o'clock in the afternoon, after
the rain had subsided somewhat.

<a id="b4p-21-N1"></a><!-- block4placeid:21 -->

**August 12 — 13, 1925** [Baltal](/#m=9/34.25711/75.41436&l=Gs&p=21/o)

Sonamarg, said to be the loveliest spot in Kashmir, did not strike us as a place of
exceptional natural beauty. We saw some fine meadows surrounded on all sides with pine
forests, but the neighboring mountains were hidden behind an impenetrable veil of mist
and clouds that hovered over the peaks.

The trail was slippery and our pack animals had a hard time on it. After three hours'
march, we reached Baltal, situated amid a birch and pine forest. The bungalow was
occupied by visitors from Srinagar, and we preferred to pitch our own camp on a fine
meadow outside the resthouse.

The rain started again toward evening and continued for the rest of the night. In the
early morning a party of Balti pony men arrived from the pass and reported a landslide
there. This bad news meant that we would have to stay for the day at Baltal and send up
men to clear the road of thedébris. We sent our chief shikari, Satar
Khan, and ten of our pony men out to the pass with spades to repair the trail. Toward
noon the rain started again with renewed force and the dismal weather continued until
late into the evening. Everything was wet and we had to take the greatest precautions to
keep our boxes with food supplies dry. Our men returned toward evening, and reported
that the road was clear but that several other places were threatened by avalanches if
the rain continued. Luckily for us it stopped toward evening, and by five o'clock in the
morning the sky was beautifully clear.

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**August 14, 1925** [Matayan](/#m=9/34.37018/75.59057&l=Gs&p=23/o) *Through: Zoji Pass, Mitsahoi*

<p>
The route from Ganderbal to Baltal runs through a typical Kashmir mountain country with
well-watered hillsides, receiving plenty of moisture and covered with luxuriant meadows
and pine forests. The great change comes only after the Zoji Pass.
<a id="t4p-22-N1"></a><span text4placeid:22>
We started about six o'clock in the morning and slowly ascended the pass. It presents
no difficulty in late summer or autumn. But in winter it is dangerous, and practicable
only for men, for its avalanche-swept slopes are covered with ice and snow which may
at any time give way and carry the traveler down the precipice.
</span>
Traffic is closed for the whole of winter and during early spring, during which time the
traveler has to pay special rates to the coolies who agree to face the peril on the
summit of the pass.
</p>

The Zoji La route was already known in ancient times. The first mention of the route is
made by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-k'ung who visited Kashmir between 751-790 A.D. and
mentions the route to Tibet across the Zoji Pass. It has witnessed numerous conflicts in
the past. In the fourteenth century came the Turks and shortly after them, the Ladaki
Prince Rin-chen, who swept into the Kashmir Valley. In 1532 A.D. the famous Mirza
Mohammad Haidar entered the valley of Kashmir and successfully fought near the pass.

The Zoji Pass (11,300 feet) possesses another name of Du-shi-la (dus-bshi-la). According
to the Rev. Dr. A. H. Francke, the name is a contracted form of the name of the goddess
Du-shi lha-mo, the wife of thesiddha
Naropa. According to the popular story related by Dr. Francke, Naropa had to leave her
behind because of her Kashmiri smell. The goddess, in disgust, turned her back upon
Ladak, and this caused Ladak to dry up and Kashmir to become a verdant valley.

<a id="t4p-22-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:22 -->
On ascending the pass, the landscape changed completely. We now entered the typical
Tibetan mountain country. Barren mountain ridges rose on both sides and between them lay
a broad upland plain covered by stone bowlders and scant grazing lands.

<p>
<a id="t4p-322-N1"></a><span text4placeid:322>
At Mitsahoi, on the ninth mile, we stopped for an hour
</span>
<a id="t4p-23-N1"></a><span text4placeid:23>
and then resumed our march toward the broad plain on which lies the resthouse of
Matayan. The day had become overcast and heavy gray clouds hung over the mountain
peaks. The last six miles to Matayan we rode in a pouring rain that made the path
slippery, and we were glad to reach the resthouse and camp for the night.
</span>
</p>

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**August 15 — 16, 1925** [Dras](/#m=9/34.42996/75.75098&l=Gs&p=25/o) *Through: Prandes*

<p>
Next day we continued our march to Dras.
<a id="t4p-24-N1"></a><span text4placeid:24>
Passing through the small hamlet of Prandes we saw several farmsteads, surrounded by
barley fields, which looked like small strongholds.
</span>
After an hour's ride from Prandes, we entered the open valley of Dras.
</p>

Dras, properly speaking, is a series of small hamlets scattered over the broad valley
watered by the Dras River. The population consists of Dards and Baltis.

Near to the bungalow stands the modern Dogra Fort. Ruins of several old strongholds are
scattered over the valley and the foot of the hills. The Tibetan name for Dras is
Hembabs. The altitude is about 10,000 feet.

<p>
<a id="t4p-25-N1"></a><span text4placeid:25>
For me the chief interest in Dras lay in the Buddhist stone sculptures, found on the
roadside outside the villages of Dras. They are four in all
</span>
and have been described by Sir Alexander Cunningham, who took them to represent female
deities, and by Dr. Francke, who correctly described them in hisAntiquities of Indian
Tibet.
</p>

The first small stone represents a figure of a horseman, probably the portrait of a
local
raja
who erected the two bodhisattva images as recorded in the Sharada inscription on the
reverse of the stone. The stone next to the first one represents the Bodhisattva
Maitreya. The Bodhisattva is represented standing and attired in the princely costume of
a
rajakumara
or royal prince. In his raised right hand he holds a rosary and his left hand supports a
vase or
bum-pa. On his head he wears the diadem (mukuta). Below the principal figure one sees
figures of devotees. On the right corner of the stone there is a Sharada inscription,
which is unfortunately very much damaged.

I have already noticed elsewhere that the cult of Maitreya was associated with the
spread of Mahayana.

The presence of images of the Bodhisattva Maitreya along the caravan route
Kashmir-Ladak, and along other caravan routes of central Asia, seems to be significant.

The third stone represents the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara with two attendants. On the
stone above the head of one of the attendants, Dr. Francke has discovered a much-damaged
inscription.

The fourth stone represents a lotus flower. Dr. Francke dates the images approximately
from the tenth century A.D. They have undoubtedly some connection with the spread of
Buddhism into the kingdoms of westernmost Tibet and, as such, may belong to the ninth
century A.D.

<p>
<a id="t4p-25-N2"></a><span text4placeid:25>
At Dras we had to change our transport. This necessitated long negotiations with the
local headmen, who had to supply pack animals.
</span>
Thanks to the excellent organization of the relay service on the Ladak route, travelers
usually find their transport ready for them. In our case we required at least seventy
pack animals—a large number for the scant population along the route. By the evening
everything was settled, and pack horses and
dzo
(a crossbreed between a yak and a cow) began to pour into the dak bungalow's compound.
In the morning we went through the usual "ceremony" of the distribution of our loads by
the headmen among the pony drivers. Dark-turbaned men swarmed in the courtyard and the
loading was accompanied by the usual loud cries and occasional wrangles. I must credit
the Ladakis and Baltis with remarkably quick loading.
</p>

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**August 17, 1925** [Shimsha Kharbu](/#m=9/34.54004/75.98898&l=Gs&p=26/o) *Through: Dundelthang*

Leaving Dras, the trail skirts barley fields fenced by low stone walls, and descends
toward the Dras River.

<a id="t4p-323-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:323 -->
The small hamlet of Dundelthang was the scene of a recent tragedy. An American traveler,
Mr. Landon, disappeared here, while on his way to Ladak. His body was subsequently found
and buried in the small European cemetery at Leh.

<p>
The valley narrows and the path follows the left bank of the river that flows through a
fine gorge.
<a id="t4p-26-N1"></a><span text4placeid:26>
We reached Shimsha Kharbu late in the afternoon and camped for the night in the
resthouse, pleasantly situated in a garden of willows. Above the bungalow stand the
ruins of a castle said to have belonged to Khri Sultan of Sod, a place near Kargil. In
Shimsha Kharbu, Ladakis are already more prominent.
</span>
</p>

In theserai close to the bungalow we found a small caravan of Yarkend
traders and some pilgrims from Kashgar on their way to distant Mecca. Since the Great
War most of these pilgrims travel across the high passes of the Karakorum, and then
through Bombay and by sea. Many die on these journeys, but a great many return to occupy
an honored place in their communities.

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**August 18, 1925** [Kargil](/#m=9/34.54877/76.13049&l=Gs&p=27/o)

<p>
<a id="t4p-27-N1"></a><span text4placeid:27>
The next march brought us to the thriving little town of Kargil, the last big
settlement in the Dard district.
</span>
<a id="t4p-325-N1"></a><span text4placeid:325>
At Kharal there is a good suspension bridge. From here a road branches off to Skardo,
and crosses the river, whereas the trail to Kargil follows up the bank of the Suru
River.
</span>
</p>

<a id="t4p-492-N1"></a><a id="t4p-324-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:492,324 -->
In Dong-ga, which is situated between Shimsha Kharbu and Chanigund, there is a bowlder
with many carvings, representing ibex, archers, and swastika figures. These stone
carvings are widespread over Ladak and the neighboring mountain countries and are found
as far as the Sanju Oasis on the northern side of the Sanju Pass. They belong to the
primitive nature religion of Tibet, usually designated by the name of Bon. The ibex is
very popular in the ancient fire cult of the Mongols, and is connected with the idea of
fecundity. It seems that these stone carvings belonging to a remote common religious
period of inner Asia.

<a id="t4p-27-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:27 -->
Kargil is situated on a vast plateau. The alluvial slopes that gradually descend toward
the river are under irrigation. The town is the capital of the Purig Province, whose
population consists of Tibetan stock which has embraced Islam. The streets of the
village are thronged with a motley crowd of traders and other visitors to the town
market. Sturdy and fair-looking Yarkendis mingle with men from Gilgit and Hunza. Short
and squarely built Ladakis, in gray homespun, urge droves of horses and donkeys along
the streets. Hawk-nosed Kashmiris, with red flaming beards, bargain with black-turbaned
Dards and men from Skardo.

<a id="t4p-27-N3"></a><!-- text4placeid:27 -->
We experienced some trouble in raising the required number of pack animals. A big
trading caravan had requisitioned all that were available, and we spent several busy
hours in making arrangements. Finally a small caravan of Ladakis was persuaded to hire
out their animals for the next stage.

A place of interest in the town is the Dogra Castle, constructed in modern times;
another is the Sod Castle, a little north of Kargil, which we had no time to visit.

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**August 19, 1925** [Mulbe](/#m=9/34.37866/76.3665&l=Gs&p=30/o) *Through: Pashkyum, Shargo-lha*

<p>
<a id="t4p-28-N1"></a><span text4placeid:28>
The next march brought us from Dardistan to Buddhist Ladak. On leaving the town of
Kargil, the road crosses a vast sandy plateau. After two hours' ride, we reached the
large village of Pashkyum, the scene of a victorious raid by the Dogras.
</span>
Beyond the village, the trail enters a narrow gorge of sandstone rocks.
<a id="t4p-29-N1"></a><span text4placeid:29>
The first Buddhists are met at Shargo-lha (Shar-'go-lha). At this village the valley
suddenly widens and a string ofchortens or stupas (shrines) heralds the entrance into the Buddhist kingdom of Ladak.
</span>
</p>

<a id="t4p-29-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:29 -->
The village of Shar-go-lha is prominent in local history. According to tradition, one of
the ministers of the Tibetan King Srong-btsan-sgam-po, the bLön-po Rig-pa-can, is said
to have been born there. His house is still shown situated near the bridge of
Shar-go-lha.

<a id="t4p-29-N3"></a><!-- text4placeid:29 -->
Close to the village there is a cave monastery of considerable interest.

<a id="t4p-29-N4"></a><!-- text4placeid:29 -->
According to a local tradition, the monastery was built by two local chiefs, Thog-lde-jo
and Yang-lde-jo.

<a id="t4p-30-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:30 -->
The last three miles of the road from Shar-go-lha to Mulbe passed through a country of
unusual grandeur. In sharp, bold outlines lie the rugged and rocky mountain ridges. The
small village of Mulbe clusters at the foot of a crag on which stands the small lamasery
of Mulbe. We spent the night at the resthouse, situated at some distance from the
village.

<a id="t4p-30-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:30 -->
Mulbe and its antiquities have been already thoroughly studied and investigated by Dr.
Francke, an admirable student of west Tibetan antiquities. His researches are embodied
in a learned article, "The Rock Inscriptions at Mulbe."

<a id="t4p-30-N3"></a><a id="t4p-606-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:30,606 -->
Mulbe boasts of an old Dard castle, two monasteries, and several important inscriptions
found on the rock on which one of the monasteries is situated.

<p>
<a id="t4p-30-N4"></a><span text4placeid:30>
The chief interest of Mulbe consists, however, in a colossal stone figure of Maitreya.
The image was first noticed and described by Moorcroft in 1820. It represents the
Bodhisattva standing, and is some twenty feet in height. The Bodhisattva is attired in
the costume of an Indian ascetic, with the sacred brahmanical string which serves to
distinguish bodhisattva images from feminine deities wearing a costume similar to that
of a Bodhisattva.
</span>
It is difficult to say anything definite about the date of the image. Its purely Indian
character is evident, and as a work of art it occupies an outstanding place among the
stone sculptures of Ladak. Local tradition attributes the image to the time of the
great lotsa-wa or translator, Rin-chen-bzang-po (Ratnabhadra
964-1054 A.D.). I believe that this must not be far from the truth and that the stone
image belongs to the tenth or eleventh centuries A.D. The lower half of the image is
hidden by a small temple or lha-khang built by Wazir Söd-nam,
the local landlord. An aged priest officiates in the chapel, and offers flower garlands
and ghee to the image, before which an offering lamp burns on
a low altar table. The walls of the chapel are decorated with frescoes representing the
"eight great sons of Nyewa" who are said to have carved the image. The keeper belongs to
an old family of astrologers and his duty is said to be hereditary in the family.
</p>

From the outside, the image is hidden by trees and the chapel, but when one enters the
edifice, one suddenly sees the colossal statue rising before one's eyes. It makes a
lasting and powerful impression on everyone who visits the spot.

<p>
<a id="t4p-30-N5"></a><span text4placeid:30>
From the chapel we went to visit the house of the local landlord who had erected the
chapel of Maitreya. It is situated a little above the road and is a typical Tibetan
house, with stables and servants' quarters on the ground floor and the living quarters
on the upper floor. </span>We found the widow of the landlord in her private chapel where she was offering daily
prayers for the welfare of the soul of her departed husband.
</p>

Wealthy Tibetan families very often spend considerable sums in memory of their departed
members. Large donations are presented to monasteries, which must pray for the salvation
and speedy reincarnation of the departed. The widow of the late landlord of Mulbe
employed a lama who spent his days murmuring prayers and rhythmically striking his drum.

The chapel contained some clay and brass images of Sakyamuni, the Teacher Padmasambhava,
and Tara, the Saviouress, besides several photographs representing the abbot or sku-shok of the Hemis Monastery, the Tashi Lama of Tsang, and the
Dalai Lama of Lhasa.

The housemaids were busy grinding barley and pressing oil on the flat roof of the house.

<a id="t4p-606-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:606 -->
From the landlord's house we proceeded up the steep crag to the monastery situated on
its summit. It is a tiny temple of the usual Tibetan architecture, situated inside a
small compound. The lha-khang is in charge of an aged priest.
Inside the temple stands an altar with a gilded clay image of Padmasambhava. A small
library containing the sixteen volumes of the Prajñaparamita or 'Bum is placed along the
walls of the temple. This monastery belongs to the Dug-pa sect of the unreformed
Nying-ma-pa School of Tibetan Buddhism.

Returning from the monastery, we examined the inscriptions carved on the rock surface.
Among them there is an edict promulgated by the King 'Bum-lde and a wedding
congratulation to King Jamyang ('Jam-dbyangs) and his queen.

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 20, 1925** [Bod-Kharbu](/#m=9/34.34413/76.55812&l=Gs&p=32/o) *Through: Namike Pass*

<a id="t4p-31-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:31 -->
We made an early start next day in order to reach the next stage, Bod-Kharbu.

<p>
<a id="t4p-31-N2"></a><span text4placeid:31>
The road leads across the Namike Pass, at an altitude of 13,000 feet; the ascent is
very gradual
</span>
and
<a id="t4p-32-N1"></a><span text4placeid:32>
after crossing the pass, the trail leads into the valley of Kharbu, interesting for
its many ruined castles that crown the barren summits of mountain spurs.
</span>
The place was the scene of considerable warfare in the reign of King Del-den (bDe-ldan
rnam-rgyal, 1620-40 A.D.).
</p>

<p>
The valley bottom is watered by a small rivulet, the Tanjichu, and is covered by verdant
barley fields carefully fenced with stone inclosures.
<a id="t4p-32-N2"></a><span text4placeid:32>
We camped in the resthouse of Bod-Kharbu, a small Ladaki village situated at an
elevation of some 11,000 feet. On the opposite side of the river stand, high on a
steep rock, the important ruins of the castle of sTag-rtse.
</span>
A little down the valley to the north lies the old castle of Chigtan. The village of
Chigtan has also a small lamasery which might be assigned to the eleventh century A.D.
</p>

The old town of Kharbu, probably destroyed during the war waged by King Del-den
rnam-rgyal against the Khri Sultan of Kartse (about 1620-30 A.D.) lies on the sandstone
plateau above the village of Bod-Kharbu. Above the ruined town stands the old castle of
Kharbu, also in ruins.

Outside the village in a narrow gorge is situated a small Buddhist temple orlha-khang.
We found in it an old lama, worshiping several clay images, the one in the middle of the
altar representing Spyan-ras-gzigs Thugs-rje-chen-po, Avalokitesvara, the Merciful Lord.
The temple possessed no library of its own, except for some prayer manuals.

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 21 — 22, 1925** [Lamayuru](/#m=9/34.28314/76.7708&l=Gs&p=33/o) *Through: Pho-tho La*

<p>
<a id="t4p-33-N1"></a><span text4placeid:33>
The next stage brought us to Lamayuru, the famous monastery on the Kashmir-Ladak route.
</span>
<a id="t4p-326-N1"></a><span text4placeid:326>
A view of unique grandeur opens before the traveler from the summit of the Pho-tho La
Pass, 14,000 feet above sea level—a vast amphitheater of rugged mountains, sharp
rocks, and distant snowy peaks.
</span>
</p>

<a id="t4p-33-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:33 -->
An hour's ride down the gradually descending slope, and the firststupas, standing at the
entrance into the narrow gorge, emerge from behind a low sandy spur. On entering the
narrow the local monastic tradition, it was founded by the famous mahasiddha Naropa who lived in the ninth century A.D. and with
whose name are associated many events in the church history of Ladak. The name of the
monastery is said to be a corruption of gYung-drung or
Svastika, the synonym of Bön, i.e., the primitive nature religion of Tibet. Dr. Francke
relates the following legend about the name of the monastery:

When Naropa ... arrived at the site the whole valley was filled with a lake which he
caused to dry up. The monastery received its name from a plantation of sacrificial grain
which miraculously grew into the shape of the Svastika (gYung-drung). It is interesting
that there are traces of deposits of a former lake all around the mountains of Lamayuru,
and it is strange that Drew in his book does not make any mention of them. But the
Ladakis must really have a geological instinct, to be able to invent stories of this
kind. They have also tales of the existence of former lakes at Leh and at Trilokanath in
Lahul. The name gYung-drung was of course not given by Naropa,
but must date back to a time long before he arrived in the country, as it was then the
foremost place of the Bön religion which is called gYung-drung Bön.

<a id="t4p-33-N3"></a><!-- text4placeid:33 -->
We visited the du-khang or assembly hall in which some twenty
monks were reciting prayers—the library of the monastery containing a Kanjür and Tanjür
of the Narthang print—and the small courtyard in which the religious dances take place.

The Incarnate Lama of Lamayuru was away, and we were allowed to visit his living rooms,
which were, as usual, neat and orderly.

According to the lamas of the monastery, the oldest part of the convent is the temple
called Seng-ge sgang, situated at the southern end of the cliff of Lamayuru. The
principal image is that of Mañjushri or Jam-pe yang. According to a local tradition the
Seng-ge sgang temple dates back to the bKa-gdams period, that is the eleventh century
A.D. Dr. A. H. Francke, who visited this temple, thinks that the tradition is quite in
agreement with the general appearance of the temple.

<a id="t4p-33-N4"></a><!-- text4placeid:33 -->
We also paid a visit to a ruined Bön sanctuary, referred to by Dr. Francke.
Unfortunately the frescos that once adorned the walls of the edifice were in a very
dilapidated condition and one could hardly identify the images represented on them.

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 23, 1925** [Nurla](/#m=9/34.30121/76.98095&l=Gs&p=35/o) *Through: Khalatse*

On the twenty-third of August we broke camp and started on our further journey, hoping
to reach the hamlet of Nurla in one day's march.

<p>
The trail is rather bad. In several places one has to cross avalanche-swept slopes and
sand and gravel continuously drift down into the stream. Several times we had to cross
large accumulations ofdébris—traces of a recent avalanche.<a id="t4p-34-N1"></a><span text4placeid:34>
After three hours' march we reached the open valley of the Indus and crossed the great
river by a suspension bridge to the important village of Khalatse.
</span>
</p>

<p>
<a id="t4p-34-N2"></a><span text4placeid:34>
Khalatse, the old Dard center, is known for its antiquities. It was formerly a Dard
colony, and there still exists here a ruined Dard castle.</span>
The Ladak king Lha-chen Nag-lug (1150-75 A.D.) built the important castle of Brag-nag,
whose ruins still tower over the village. Dr. Francke has discovered a number of old
Kharoshthi, Brahmi and Gupta inscriptions, which present many difficulties to the
decipherer.
</p>

<p>
The modern village of Khalatse is pleasantly situated among apricot groves.<a id="t4p-34-N3"></a><span text4placeid:34>
After a brief halt at the village, we continued our march toward Nurla
(sNyur-la).</span><a id="t4p-35-N1"></a><span text4placeid:35>
The trail leads over a stony level ground. The heat in midday was intense. We reached
sNyur-la in the afternoon and took up quarters for the night in the small resthouse of
the place.
</span>
</p>

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 24, 1925** [Saspola](/#m=9/34.24487/77.16372&l=Gs&p=36/o)

<p>
<a id="t4p-36-N1"></a><span text4placeid:36>
The march from sNyur-la to Saspola leads across a barren country almost entirely
devoid of vegetation. Saspola itself is a large village with numerous tree groves.
</span>
<a id="t4p-601-N1"></a><span text4placeid:601>
Across the Indus, some two miles distant, lies the interesting monastery of Alchi, one
of the oldest convents of Ladak. This monastery dates back to the time of Rin-chen
bzang-po (eleventh century) and has preserved much of its old Indian wood-carvings
which recall the finely executed carvings of medieval Kashmir.
</span>
<a id="t4p-36-N2"></a><span text4placeid:36>
In the village of Saspola itself there exist two ruined stupas attributed
to Rin-chen bzang-po. On the ruined foundation of the largest one has been erected a
small monastery, named Cham-pa gom-pa (Byams-pa dgon-pa). It contains a large image of
gilded clay of the Bodhisattva Maitreya and several other large images of standing
bodhisattvas. According to local tradition, the standing statue of Maitreya was
erected by Rin-chen bzang-po himself. Most probably the present statue dates from a
comparatively recent time and possibly replaced an older one, which might have dated
from the time of the great translator.
</span>
</p>

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 25, 1925** [sNye-mo](/#m=9/34.19597/77.33478&l=Gs&p=38/o) *Through: Basgo*

<a id="t4p-37-N1"></a><a id="t4p-605-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:37,605 -->
The next march from Saspola to sNye-mo was interesting for several old monasteries. On
leaving the village of Saspola, the trail crosses a vast sandy plateau. Not far from the
route lies the important monastery of kLu-dkyil, popularly pronounced Likir. It was
founded by King Lha-chen rgyal-po (ca. 1050-80 A.D.). The trail descends into the deeper
valley and reaches the romantically situated hamlet of Basgo, famous for one of the
oldest monasteries of Ladak and for the ancient palace of its kings.

<p>
<a id="t4p-37-N2"></a><span text4placeid:37>
An old temple, founded by King Thse-dbang rnam-rgyal, contains a huge statue of
Maitreya, Avalokitesvara, and curious wall frescoes. The ancient palace of Ladak kings
has a small monastery of Seljang. It contains a big statue of Bodhisattva Maitreya,
said to have been erected by King Seng-ge rnam-rgyal about 1610 A.D. It also contains
the ancient royal library of Ladak.</span>
So far as I know, its contents were never thoroughly investigated nor the volumes
catalogued. Basgo was the scene of considerable fighting when the advancing Mongol
troops besieged the Ladak king, bDe-legs rnam-rgyal, who reigned between 1640 and 1680
A.D.
</p>

Basgo, with its half-ruined temples and castles built on precipitous cliffs, and the
quaint huts of the modern village that cluster between the sanctuaries and the sandstone
rocks, makes a deep impression on the visitor; and I still cherish in my memory the
picture of this ancient corner of westernmost Tibet. The town is justly said to contain
the oldest convents of Ladak.

<a id="t4p-38-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:38 -->
From Basgo, the trail leads over level stony ground to the collection of farmsteads
called sNye-mo. The bungalow proved to be occupied by a party of Europeans traveling
from Leh, and we preferred to pitch our tents in the shady grove outside the bungalow.

<a id="t4p-38-N2"></a><!-- text4placeid:38 -->
Near to sNye-mo lie the ruins of an old fort called Chung-khar, of which only walls
remain.

<!-- block4placeid:null -->

**August 26 — September 18, 1925** [Leh](/#m=9/34.16611/77.58657&l=Gs&p=40/o) *Through: Phyi-dbang, Spi-thug*

On the twenty-sixth of August we started at an early hour on the last seventeen miles to
Leh.

<p>
The track leaves the Indus at sNye-mo and crosses a wide plateau surrounded by barren
mountains.
<a id="t4p-327-N1"></a><span text4placeid:327>
After three hours' march, we reached the village of Phyi-dbang, famous for a monastery
built by King Bkra-shis rnam-rgyal (1500-1532). The monastery belongs to the
'Bri-khung-pa sect and possesses a finelha-khang or temple.
</span>
</p>

<a id="t4p-39-N1"></a><!-- text4placeid:39 -->
About two o'clock in the afternoon we reached the important Yellow Hat Monastery of
Spi-thug (dPe-thub) built by King 'Bum-lde (fifteenth century) on a steep rock. This
monastery was one of the first Yellow Hat monasteries of Ladak. It possesses a branch,
the Zang-skar Monastery, just outside of Leh; and the well-known monastery of Ri-dzong
(Ri-rdzong) is also connected with it.

<p>
The monastery of Spi-thug enjoys a wide reputation throughout Tibet for the austerity of
its monks and the learning of its abbot. It was erected in honor of the great reformer
rJe-rin-po-che Tsong-kha-pa (1357-1419 A.D.) and a large-sized image of the Saint is
found in its du-khang or assembly hall.
<a id="t4p-39-N2"></a><span text4placeid:39>
We decided to visit the monastery on our way and therefore rode up the steep crag on
which it stands. We had no difficulty in gaining admission and were very cordially
invited in by the abbot and his assistant or umdze. We first were shown
round the du-khang where some thirty monks were attending
divine service. The walls were covered with frescoes, but the extreme darkness inside
the hall prevented us from seeing much of them. Before the altar glittered several
rows of offering lamps, whose twinkling light illumined from time to time the serene
faces of the images.
</span>
</p>

We were entertained with tea and sweets in the private apartments of the sku-shok or Incarnate Lama of the monastery. The sku-shok himself was absent at Ri-dzong, where he was undergoing a
course of instruction in Buddhist metaphysics. In his absence the monastery was
administered by Lama Lobzang, a pleasant old gentleman of quiet manners, who made a very
good impression on all of us. He was one of those erudite lamas who carry in themselves
centuries of religious culture.

The private rooms were neat and well furnished in Tibetan style, with painted glass
cases containing clay and brass images and a small library of religious texts destined
for the private use of the sku-shok. His mantle was thrown on his low
throne standing at the northern wall of the room. After a pleasant hour spent in the
company of the abbot and his assistant, we climbed to the roof of the monastery and
enjoyed the magnificent view over the vast and open Indus Valley, north of which lies
the capital of Ladak.

<p>
<a id="t4p-40-N1"></a><span text4placeid:40>
The last five miles to Leh led over a stony plain dotted here and there with small
groves of trees. Leh, with its bazaar engirded by high walls, its city gates, the
towering mass of the palace, and the picturesque crowd that throngs the bazaar and
streets, makes a lasting impression. </span>It is one of those towns of higher Asia, which has still preserved its character of an
Asiatic caravan center to which stream numerous caravans carrying the products of India,
China, Tibet, and Turkestan.
</p>

A careful archaeological study of Ladak requires prolonged residence in the country.
Whatever we know of the past of the country and its monuments of antiquity, we owe to
the labors of Dr. A. H. Francke and his predecessors in the Moravian Mission.

<p>
<a id="t4p-40-N2"></a><span text4placeid:40>
Our expedition remained in the capital of Ladak from August 26 to September 19, 1925,
except for several days spent on a journey to the famous Hemis Monastery and other
places of interest round the town.
</span>
Much of the time during this stay was occupied by preparations for the next difficult
portion of the journey across the great mountain route to Chinese Turkestan. We had to
dismiss all our Kashmiri servants, who were quite unsuitable for a hard mountain
journey, and engaged new, experienced men. The problem of transport also gave much
anxiety, for it was imperative to get reliable caravan men and good animals. Most of the
caravans which reached Leh had very poor animals requiring several weeks of
recuperation.
</p>

After some search and lengthy consultations with the British aqsa-qal of Leh, we signed an agreement with Nazar Bai, a Karghalik caravan man, who
possessed thirty-six pack horses in good condition. He had come in July and his drove of
horses had been grazing for two months in a garden outside Leh. We needed in all
seventy-six pack animals to carry the expedition's baggage, and there still remained
thirty horses to be found in addition to those we already had.

Every day we went round the serais or resthouses for Yarkend
traders, inquiring for new arrivals or starting caravans. Finally we succeeded in
finding the required thirty pack horses, belonging to an Afghan trader, Omar Khan, a
resident of Yarkend. His horses had come only recently from the passes and were in poor
condition, but the owner promised to feed them well the remaining three weeks and to
have them fit by the date of departure. We had to agree, for this was the only solution
of our transport problem. On such a difficult and deserted route as the Karakorum trade
route, it is always advisable to make use of hired transport and not to risk a caravan
of purchased animals. The difficulties of this mountain route, its rarefied atmospheres
and absolute barrenness, and the great percentage of caravan animals that perish yearly,
make traveling very expensive. The prices for one pack horse range from sixty rupees to
eighty rupees from Leh to Yarkend or Khotan. We fixed the price of one horse at
seventy-six rupees, with the obligation of carrying the expedition's baggage in
twenty-four days from Leh to Khotan.

The caravan men were sturdy Turkis from Karghalik and Khotan, in large chapans or coats, soft leather boots or charuq, and
large oval fur caps protecting the wearer from the bitter winds and gales of the
highlands. It was strange to hear the strongly guttural sounds of the eastern Turki, so
different from the soft Urdu of India and the fluent speech of Lhasa Tibetans. Some of
the men knew a little Chinese, and our Chinese interpreter was able to make some sort of
conversation with them.

Once the transport problem had been settled, we had more time to inspect the interesting
locality of Leh and its vicinity.

The modern city of Leh is situated at the junction of several important central Asian
caravan routes, hence its importance for the history of the Indian border country. At
least three long and difficult routes connect Leh with Lhasa, the capital of Tibet
proper. The first of them crosses the Tibetan uplands and passes north of the great
lakes; Ngan-tse tsho, Chyaring tsho (Kya-ring tsho), and Nam tsho, the Tengri-nor of our
maps. It joins the great Mongolia-Lhasa route in the important frontier center of
Nag-chu dzong (a Tibetan dzong is the administrative center of
a district and not a fortress, as is often recorded).

The second of the three routes crosses the Tibetan upland to the holy Kailasa Range and
strikes south of the Great Lakes: Dangra yum-tsho, Ngan-tse, and Tengri-nor. Travelers
by this route travel direct to Lhasa across the high pass of Go-ring La in the Nyen-chen
Thang La Range.

The third route follows the course of the Brahmaputra and passes through Saga dzong,
north of the river. From here it strikes either along the bank of the Brahmaputra to
Lhartse dzong, or crosses the river and passes through Tingri on the Nepal border. In
both cases the route runs through Shigatse to Lhasa. This last route is used by most of
the Ladaki traders traveling to Lhasa and by the Embassy from the Maharaja of Kashmir to
the Court of Lhasa.

The Karakorum route, aptly called the highest trade route in the world, connects Leh
with distant China and the oases of Chinese Turkestan. Traders from Yarkend, Kashgar,
and Khotan, the principal oases of southwestern Chinese Turkestan, follow it on their
way to India. From Leh the central Asian caravans travel to Kashmir across the Zoji La,
or through Zangskar, Lahul, the valley of Kulu and the native states of Mandi to
Hoshiarpur and Amritsar, the two great emporiums of Punjab. This Turkestan trade route
has increased greatly in importance during the last ten years, and the Government of
India has facilitated by several measures the passage of trading caravans over Indian
territory. With the closing of the Russian frontier and the recent unrest and civil war
in western China, the Turkestan trade turned southward to India, and we found the route
alive with caravan parties which were braving the icy winds and frequent avalanches on
the mountain crests.

Such a favorable situation makes Leh an exceedingly interesting place for archaeological
and ethnographical research. The two principal bazaars of the town are thronged by a
multicolored crowd, among which the neatly attired Turkestan Turks are prominent. Huge
bales of merchandise, containing Turkestan felts or nimdah, which come from
Khotan, Guma, and Yarkend and command good prices on Indian markets, stand in front of
the open shops. Some of these felts are very decorative in design and, as products, are
much superior to similar felts made by the Mongols or even the Chinese. In camp they are
indispensable, for they serve as floor covering for tents and as bedding for the
personnel of the caravans. Quite recently the export of these felts from Turkestan to
India greatly increased, and this reacted favorably on the ancient industry.

The Tibetan nomads of the north bring the soft Tibetan wool out of which Kashmiri
artisans make their beautiful pashmina shawls.

The caravans from Turkestan arrive usually in July and August and start on their return
journey in October or even November, before the snow has closed the passes for the
winter. The merchandise brought to Leh and Kashmir consists chiefly of Turkestan felts,
Chinese and Khotanese silks, furs, wool, and leather products such as the Turkestan top
boots and charuqs, valued so highly by the Ladaki caravan men. A
considerable trade is done in horses, and Yarkend caravans usually bring with them a
good number of riding horses which they drive unloaded across the passes. The hardy and
swift Turkestan horse is greatly appreciated in Kashmir and the plains of India, which
have never produced a country horse of its own.

The returning caravans carry loads of European-made goods: products of Manchester looms
and Bradford woolen mills, British and German dyestuffs, various articles of
haberdashery, and Indian products and spices, such as saffron, which is exported in
great quantities from Kashmir to Turkestan and Tibet.

All this motley crowd of visitors moves, shouts, and gesticulates in the narrow streets
and bazaars of Leh. Sitting on the verandah of the dak bungalow one constantly hears the
pleasant bells of passing caravans and the songs of the Ladaki women and men carrying
grass from the fields. At times this continuous flow of men and beasts will suddenly be
interrupted by the trampling of a drove of horses driven by mounted herdsmen.

In some corners of the bazaars, or in the vicinity of Lamaist temples, one meets
red-clad lamas who have traveled hundreds of miles from inner Tibet, selling holy relics
and talismans. Curiously enough I have seen Buddhist talismans or srung-wa on Turki caravan men from Karghalik who seemed to be
quite convinced of their potency. The black and blue turbaned Baltis are very prominent
in the streets of Leh and usually find employment as coolies or caravan men, carrying
heavy loads. Occasionally one meets the quaint figures of the Mons, preservers of the
ancient Ladaki lore and probably an ethnic remnant of a primitive population, which has
been submerged by subsequent waves of foreign migrations.

During our stay in Leh, we made the acquaintance of the son of the Ladaki aqsaqal of Lhasa, a young fellow of considerable acumen, who was
on a summer visit to Leh. The goods that he brought consisted of brick tea, Tibetan
cloth puru, lama boots manufactured at Dre-pung, and other objects of the
Lamaist cult. He even had several Tibetan xylographs for sale, prominent among which was
the life story or nam-thar of Je-tsün Milarepa, Tibet's great
ascetic and poet of the eleventh century A.D.

Wandering through the streets of Leh, one feels the beating pulse of the great Asia that
lies hidden behind the veil of a superficial modernization.

The native Ladaki population is chiefly agricultural, and numerous farmsteads and
villages lie along the Indus Valley and the vast sandy plain on which Leh is situated.
In this mountainous country agriculture is possible only in the river valleys and is
seldom carried on above an altitude of 12,000 feet. The scarcity of arable land, mostly
represented by fluvial fans and river terraces, has limited the agricultural population
to a few river valleys.

Leh, which is sometimes spelled sLel or sLes, became the permanent residence of the
kings of Ladak from the time of the reign of King 'Bum-lde (fifteenth century A.D.). The
antiquities of Leh consist of palaces, stupas, and temples, stone carved
images, and ancient graves.

When one approaches the town of Leh, one perceives from afar the towering white mass of
its great palace, erected about 1620 A.D. by King Seng-ge rnam-rgyal, one of the
greatest builders of Ladak; he was assisted in his work by the Lama sTag-tshang
ras-chen, whom he invited to his court. The palace dominates the city, and the houses
that cluster round it seem like stone steps leading toward an imposing edifice or altar.
The Leh Palace is said to have been built on the model of the great Potala Palace of
Lhasa, and indeed there is a slight resemblance between these two monuments of the
Tibetan past. We had the good fortune of passing several days at the Palace of Leh
through the courtesy of the present Raja of Ladak.

A broad road, on either side of which rise low walls of unhewn stones, leads to the
famous Lion Gate of the King's Palace. Painted wooden columns support the roof of the
entrance. A large stone stairway leads to the upper rooms of the Palace. It is in a very
dilapidated condition and some of the stones forming the steps have rolled down. One has
to advance carefully, testing the firmness of the stones. Our servants called it
"Sasseri," comparing the stairway to the difficult mountain trail leading toward the
Sasser Pass on the Karakorum route. To the right and left of the stairway gape dark
holes in the walls—former doors leading to the storerooms or servant quarters. After one
has climbed to the upper floor, a flash of bright light suddenly pierces the darkness of
the corridor—it is a side window without a wooden frame or glass, just a square hole in
the wall; climbing the stairway in complete darkness at night one has to be very careful
not to fall out of this window. A little farther on, one enters a vast hall with an
earthen floor. Round the walls stretches a kind of portico supported by wooden columns,
painted in bright colors and carved. The walls are adorned with numerous images of the
green Tara. From here a few stone steps lead to the next floor, where the living
quarters are situated. These are typical Tibetan rooms with wooden frames in the large
square windows and carved columns that support the ceiling. The doors are massive, with
huge iron keys and iron plaques that serve as ornaments. From one of the rooms a passage
leads to the roof of the Palace, from which opens a unique view of the city lying at the
foot of the Palace, the snowy peaks of the mountain range on the southern side of the
Indus Valley, and the wind-swept ridge of the Khardong La over which hover light clouds,
the messengers of approaching storm.

At sunset, the whole of the sandy plain and the sand rock mountains that rise on either
side of it light up with an intense glow. The town below plunges into a deep violet mist
and the rows of white stupas on the plain sparkle like
necklaces of precious stones. During this hour the Ladaki men and women tell their
evening prayers, and incense smoke rises slowly above every house on the plain. It is
during this hour of peace and prayer that the visitor to the capital of the little
kingdom begins to understand the intrinsic beauty of the country and the irresistible
force of attraction it exercises on its sons.

From the roof of the Palace one descends by another stairway to the small royal chapel
of the Palace. An officiating priest guards the sacred images and lights the offering
lamps of the altar. The principal figure is that of Dug-kar, the Saviouress. The figure
is the work of a Ladak artist, who has acquitted himself of his task with considerable
success. The thousand-armed goddess holds numerous symbols that reveal to the devotee
the omnipotent nature of the deity. Round the walls of the small chapel hang numerous
banners, some of which seem to be old and are extremely interesting on account of their
style. As Ladak is situated at the junction of several highways of Asia, its art and
culture bear an imprint of cosmopolitanism. Some of the painted banners evince a
decisive Indo-Persian style, and many of the details seem to be taken from a Mogul
miniature. Others again strongly remind one of the great pictorial compositions of
Chinese Turkestan. We spent considerable time studying the many painted banners under
the flickering light of a candle, for it seemed a profanation to disturb the somber
chapel with the bright and sharp light of a flashlight.

Unfortunately the Palace was not the ideal quarter for an expedition with hundreds of
cases and bales, which need packing and distribution into pony loads. After several days
spent in the fantastic surroundings of the ancient abode of Ladaki kings, we were
obliged to return to our former headquarters at the dak bungalow, where we had plenty of
space to arrange the pony loads and keep our saddle horses.

The oldest palace of Leh is situated on the steep rock rNam-rgyal rtse-mo behind the
town, and is said to have been erected by King bKra-shis rnam-rgyal (ca. 1520 A.D.). Now
only ruins remain of this ancient structure, and some of its walls have been used for
the construction of the present monastery on the hill.

Below the hill lies the small hamlet of Chubi, which was founded by the same bKra-shis
rnam-rgyal.

The present Raja of Ladak dwells in his summer residence at sTog. He receives a small
annual pension and leads a retired life. He seldom visits the town and resides in his
great town palace only during the New Year festivities. His aged father has embraced
monkhood and devotes his life to religious work. He is a serene and dignified gentleman,
learned in the sacred lore of his country. When he paces down the streets of Leh on his
rare visits to the town, many of the people throw themselves down before him and thus
greet the scion of the ancient house of Kesar.

The temples and monasteries of Leh are prominent features of the town itself and its
neighborhood. The oldest temple is situated on the rNam-rgyal rtse-mo Hill and is
dedicated to Maitreya. According to tradition it was built by King 'Bum-lde. On the same
hill is found the interesting temple called mGon-khang and dedicated to the Lords or
Dharmapalas of the Four Quarters. It was erected by King bKra-shis rnam-rgyal, the
builder of the Palace on the same hill, and of the hamlet Chubi. The temple contains
frescoes whose importance is enhanced by the fact that their dates may be given. In the
history of Tibetan pictorial art we are sadly lacking in definite dates to fix the
different periods of the artistic evolution of the country. We speak of the different
foreign influences which affected the art of Tibet, but are unable to place them in
time. Therefore it is always gratifying to find frescoes or paintings which can be
definitely dated. I hope to devote a separate work to the wall paintings found in
Tibetan monasteries; like everything in Ladak, they evince a strong composite nature,
and the artist or artists who executed them were inspired not only by the canonical art
of Tibet but were also strongly influenced by the secular art of neighboring countries.
Very striking is the fresco representing the family of Ladak kings. The men are attired
in Mogul fashion, but the queens are depicted wearing the national Ladak dress. The
fresco shows the duality that still exists in the culture of present-day Ladak.

Below the royal palace of Seng-ge rnam-rgyal stand two temples—one consecrated to the
future Buddha Maitreya, the other to Avalokitesvara, the Divine Patron of Tibet. The
temple or lha-khang of Maitreya, besides containing a huge
image of the Future Buddha, has old and interesting frescoes. One of them represents the
Meditative or Dhyani-Buddhas wearing the princely attire of bodhisattvas. Close to these
temples lie the ruins of the house of a former minister of Ladak (bKa-blon). Old clay
images and manuscript books are still to be found in the ruins.

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North of Leh is situated the small monastery of Zangskar, a branch of the Spi-thug
Monastery. It is of comparatively recent date but contains some well-executed images and
frescoes. A square courtyard paved with large slabs of stone leads to the chief temple,
standing in front of the entrance gate. The first room of the temple contains a clay
image of Avalokitesvara, the Merciful Lord. The walls of the temple are covered with
modern frescoes of fine execution, painted by a well-known Ladak artist, now an old man
residing at the Trikshe Monastery. Behind the first hall is situated a small chapel
consecrated to the worship of Dug-kar. Besides the goddess' image we found a large image
of Mañjushri or Jam-pe yang, the Prince of Knowledge. The rest of the monastery
buildings in the courtyard are occupied by cells and storerooms.

A place well-worth visiting is the town residence of the Hemis sku-shok or abbot of the well-known Hemis Monastery. It is in
charge of a nyer-wa or housekeeper. The sku-shok only seldom resides in it and most of the year the house
stands empty. It is a typical Tibetan mansion, and the upper rooms command a fine view
of the Indus Valley and the snowy mountains beyond it. As usual the ground floor is
reserved for stables, servants' quarters, and storerooms. On the second floor is
situated the kitchen, a cleanly kept place with huge shining brass cauldrons and other
kitchen utensils. The living quarters are on the upper floor. These are airy rooms with
large square windows. Only one room had glass in the windows, the other had beautifully
carved window frames but neither glass nor paper.

Some of the private houses of Leh contain interesting frescoes in the living rooms. In
one such house I remember having seen frescoes illustrating the life of Je-tsün
Milarepa, his encounter with the Bön magician Naropa on the holy Kailasa Mountain, and
other equally famous episodes of the Saint's life. The same room had another very
curious fresco representing the Emperor of China and the arrival of a Ladaki embassy to
the Imperial Court of China. Unfortunately there was no inscription to explain or date
the painting. The owner of the house called the fresco rGya-nag-gi kong-ma
chen-po, i.e., "The Emperor of China." It is the second historical fresco which I found
in Ladak. No doubt there exist others. The art of fresco painting is still cultivated in
Ladak and the Ladaki artists produce sometimes works of art which

compare favorably to those of the central Tibetan school, with its rigidity of
composition and design.

In the village of Changspa, situated in the vicinity of Leh, Dr. Francke has discovered
interesting frescoes illustrating one of the important episodes of the Kesar Saga. The
wall paintings are found in the summer residence of a family of bKa-blon or ministers.
They represent the war of Jang or lJang-dmag, a country in the east of Tibet against
which King Kesar waged war. Kesar frescoes are extremely rare throughout Tibet, and it
is gratifying to know that Dr. Francke had those of Changspa copied.

The capital of Ladak abounds in stupas, mani-walls or men-dongs, and stone-cut images.
On the large plain outside Leh stands the longest mani-wall of the country, with large
stupas on its extremities. It was built by King Del-dan rnam-rgyal (1620-40 A.D.). The
Ladak stupas are characterized by painted stucco figures on their foundations. Sometimes
these represent winged horses, lions, peacocks, or swans. Rock-cut images abound in Leh
and along the trails that lead to the town. At the village of Changspa are found two
important stone images, one representing the Buddha Sakyamuni and the other the Future
Buddha. Sakyamuni is depicted standing with both hands making the sign of instruction
(dharmacakra-mudra). The Buddha is assisted by Maitreya and Padmapani, represented on
either side of the chief figure. The second figure represents Maitreya holding the
rosary and the vase or bum-pa. It is interesting to note that the Ladak images of
Maitreya all hold the rosary in the right hand, instead of the stalk of the lotus
flower, as is the case on central Tibetan bronzes. The rosary seems to belong to an
older tradition. On the route to Khardong Pass stands a stone image of Maitreya holding
the rosary in his right hand and the vase in his left.

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A separate and curious group of monuments is formed by the Maltese crosses with
inscriptions found in the vicinity of Drang-tse, a village on the Pangkong Lake. The
inscriptions accompanying the cross figures were recognized to be Soghdian. It remains
to be determined during what period these crosses were erected and the reason that they
are found in such a remote place as Drang-tse on the Pangkong-tsho. It seems very
probable that there existed a floating Nestorian Christian population in Ladak during
the eighth to tenth centuries A.D. when Nestorian colonies were numerous along the trade
routes of Turkestan, and other regions of central Asia. Whether the Nestorian visitors
to Ladak were merchants or pilgrims, it is impossible to determine at present. In the
country round Ladak and Kashmir are found curious legends of a Christian character,
which are at present current among the Mohammedan population of the two provinces. They
may be remnants of a Nestorian past. The Nestorian Christians were known all over
central Asia under the name of ärkägün-arghun, and it is interesting to
note that the half-caste population of Ladak, born of a Turki father and a Ladaki
mother, is designated by the same word pronounced arghun. The Nestorians
were known in the Mongol Empire under the name of Tarsa and Ärkägün. The origin of ärkägün is difficult to establish.

Islam is served in Leh by the large mosque at the upper end of the bazaar. It was
probably erected after Nawab Fatehkhan's march to Ladak.

Several of the so-called ancient Dard graves at Teu-gser-po, a place about two miles
above the British Joint-Commissioner's bungalow, have been excavated by the
missionaries, and were found to contain low masonry walls of unhewn stones, somewhat
like a subterranean chamber, handmade pottery with linear ornaments, and small bronze
objects, beads, etc. Some of the pots were filled with human bones. This fact seems to
indicate that the people who built these graves were in the habit of cutting up the body
and depositing the bones and flesh in jars.

It is as yet impossible to determine what people constructed the Leh graves. Dr. Francke
believes them to have been Dards. All the skulls so far discovered were distinctly
dolichocephalic, whereas modern Tibetans of Ladak are brachycephalic. The Tibetans are a
composite race, and I have collected during my stay among the nomads of Tibet a number
of facts which show that there once existed an ancient stratum of dolichocephalic
population in Tibet. The nomad tribes of the Tibetan border country still show
dolichocephalic and brachycephalic indexes. The results of my investigations can be
summarized thus: the Hor-pas of the Thang La region—mostly dolichocephalic; the Panags,
Goloks, and Nya-rong-was—numerous dolichocephalic skulls, the same being true of the
Northern Kham Province; the Chang-pas of the lake region—mostly brachycephalic indexes,
some showing a transitional type; the agricultural population of the Brahmaputra Valley
and southeastern Tibet—mostly brachycephalic indexes. It is clear from the above that
the dolichocephalic population had been preserved along the Tibetan border, whereas the
center of the country had been conquered at some early date by a brachycephalic race. I
am inclined to think that the graves at Teu-gser-po were left by the ancient stratum of
dolichocephalic tribes of Tibet. It is interesting to note that the Leh graves are
popularly called "nomad graves," and it is precisely among the nomad population that we
find the dolichocephalic type with fine features and straight hair. Unfortunately the
missionaries were obliged to stop their excavations and a great many of these graves are
still unexplored. It will be very instructive to compare the Ladak graves to the
analogous graves found in the lake region north of the Trans-Himalayas.

The famous Hemis Monastery has often been described in books about the country, and the
religious dances that take place at the monastery about the end of June have been
attended by many Europeans. Although of comparatively recent date, the monastery
contains some old bronzes. The frescoes in the temples are modern, and as such have only
an iconographical value.

The road along the Indus Valley is extremely picturesque. The vivid green of its fields
appears in sharp contrast to the ruggedness of its mountains. The village of Shel on the
right bank of the river was once the capital of the Ladak Kingdom and is notable for
ancient rock inscriptions and stone-cut images. The Yellow Hat Monastery of Tik-tse
(Khrig-rtse), situated on a steep crag, is interesting for its romantic situation, but
it looks forlorn. It is populated by a crowd of dirty and insolent monks, who impudently
clamor for bakshish and lack the discipline and monastic
dignity found in their colleagues of Spi-thug and Ri-dzong. The Incarnate Lama was
obliged to quit the monastery some years ago, for monastic life possessed no attractions
for him. A new incarnation did not appear, and the whole establishment was left to
itself. We succeeded in finding some old bronzes and several old painted banners. Some
of the temple doors had interesting wood carvings. The colossal figure of the Future
Buddha, lit by numerous offering lamps, made a powerful impression; but the heaps of
rubbish in the corners of the edifice and the thick layer of dust on objects of worship
only enhanced the first sense of the forlorn state of the monastery. No doubt many
interesting objects could be found, but the state of utter disorganization prevents the
student from making a careful inspection of the monastery buildings.

The autumn was rapidly setting in. Yellow leaves in the gardens and the frequent breaths
of cold wind from the mountain summits made us realize that it was advisable to hurry
our departure. For several days the town had been filled with reports that snowstorms
were beginning on the high passes and our caravan-bashis pressed us to
start before the early snow would block the passes. Professor Roerich had completed his
series of paintings on Ladak and its sanctuaries, and we could begin our final
preparations for the difficult journey ahead of us. We were short of men, and it seemed
very difficult to engage suitable ones for the long journey to Khotan. We sent a notice
to the bazaars that men were needed, and daily crowds of them came to the dak bungalow.
Out of this motley collection of Baltis, Ladakis, Kashmiris, Arghuns, and Turkis, Mrs.
Roerich chose several promising men, who proved very helpful on our track to Chinese
Turkestan. Two of them had the distinction of serving under Dr. Sven Hedin during his
expedition of 1907-8, and several others had been previously employed as caravan men on
the Karakorum route. They all knew the way well and were fully prepared to face the
difficulties and dangers of the mountain journey. Most of them had been several times in
Yarkend or Khotan and spoke fluently the eastern Turki. We engaged them as far as Khotan
and promised to pay their journey home. Besides his pay each of the men received a warm
fur coat, a winter fur cap, and a pair of soft charuq boots
with felt socks. Two tents were provided to shelter the personnel of the expedition
during the night, but for the whole of the journey many of the men preferred to sleep in
the open or under the flies of our own tents.

The son of a local Ladak headman was accompanying us as head servant and proved a
devoted and efficient man. Ladakis are wonderful in caravans, always cheerful amid
hardships and storms, contented with little, and always ready to perform their work.
They march on foot long distances over hard, stony ground that renders animals lame, and
yet never complain of fatigue. In our subsequent wanderings, we often remembered our
Ladaki caravan men and their devoted service.