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plain of Bengal — jungle-clad and fever-infected marshy tracts, and rice fields

already flooded. Through the blackness of the tropical night, one could see the

strange life proceeding around the glittering lights of numerous fires scattered in

the jungle and in front of small village huts, that stood here and there among palm

trees. Figures in white turbans anddhoti

moved about, and at the railway stations the air resounded with the high-pitched cries

of peddlers selling tea, drinking water, and cigarettes. The country seemed alive with

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On the evening of the eighth of March we reached Rawalpindi. Several hours before the

cantonment, the train traversed an arid country of sand and stone, cut into numerous

canyons. After a night spent at a local hotel at Rawalpindi we again resumed our route,

but this time in motor cars.

**March 9, 1925** [Garhi](/#m=9/34.22585/73.60784&l=Gs&p=10/o) *Through: Rawalpindi*

of 4,370 feet. The mountain landscape near Uri was of outstanding beauty; patches of

snow intensified the deep blue coloring of the surrounding mountains.

and we obtained a fine view of the Nanga Parbat, towering to a height of 26,900 feet.

About three o'clock in the afternoon we drove into the native city of Srinagar, and were

at once assailed by a motley crowd of Kashmiris, yelling and crying, abusing each other,

offering goods: Kashmiri products, houseboats, shikaras, and other attractions of

Kashmir. It was a sad sight.

We established our headquarters at the Nedou Hotel and at once began our preparation for

the journey to Ladak and the desert lands of Chinese Turkestan, lying beyond the lofty

passes of the Karakorum and Sanju. A difficult and long mountain journey necessitates

protracted preparations and every detail must be thoroughly checked personally; a

journey such as that from Kashmir to Chinese Turkestan over the highest mountain route

in the world, requires unusual forethought and careful consideration. Srinagar is the

last place where such preparations can be made and food supplies obtained. The Kashmiri

artisans are famed for their work and, if supervised, turn out serviceable equipment.

There are a number of native firms in the city which produce excellent winter outfits

and camping furniture. Naturally, the traveler must keep a watchful eye on the execution

of his order. All the expedition supplies had to be packed in yaghtans or wooden boxes covered with leather. Tin or iron boxes are of no use in

mountain travel, for they easily break.

The winter outfit for the cold weather on the mountain passes and the winter in Chinese

Turkestan consisted of fur coats lined with pashmina, Gilgit fur boots, fur

caps, fur socks, and fur sleeping bags. We also ordered several tents of waterproof

Willesden canvas with warm pattoo lining. These tents had to be specially constructed to

withstand the rough traveling and the mountain gales. They consisted of two flies, the

outer fly reaching the ground to prevent the strong wind of the higher uplands from

penetrating beneath and lifting the tent. The tent poles were of thick bamboo with

strong metal joints, and the tent pegs of galvanized iron.

We also decided to buy our own riding horses in order to be self-equipped and

independent of local transport, which is not always reliable. Srinagar is a good horse

market, and one can usually get good animals of the Yarkendi or Badakhshani breed. These

breeds are famous throughout central Asia and are invaluable on long travels. The

Zangskar ponies are good for mountains, but as a rule of uncertain temper and

hard-mouthed.

With the kind help of Mr. Nedou, the proprietor of the local hotel, we soon succeeded in

buying six fine horses which carried us from Kashmir to the confines of the Altai.

The departure was fixed for the beginning of August, and, meanwhile, we decided to use

our free time for a little touring in the Kashmir Valley.

I shall not describe the capital or the valley of Kashmir. Concerning them there is a

voluminous literature, and the antiquities of the country have been studied and

commented upon by such men as Sir Aurel Stein.

by the Great Moguls Akbar and Jehangir with the sad realities of the native city of

Srinagar, one is always struck by the deep contrast. We were glad to leave the "Indian

Venice" and to feel ourselves again in the open country of the beautiful valley.

low-lying banks. The water channels are narrow and the water not always clear. The big

lake of Vulur lies engirded by high mountain ranges and in fine weather wonderful

shadows play on the mountain sides. We landed at Bandipur, a small village with some

commissariat barracks, lying at the head of the Gilgit Road that leads across Gilgit,

Hunza, and Sarikol to Kashgar and the Tarim basin. We experienced a violent windstorm on

the lake, which broke all the ropes by which the boat was secured to the shore and

almost carried it away into the open. The boatmen spent several anxious hours fighting

the storm. The house boats are not seagoing and never venture into the open in windy

weather. The dunga boat, in which our Chinese interpreter and

servants were staying, had its roof carried away by the wind. Since boatmen considered

our position very unsafe, we had to curtail our visit on the lake.

channel. The afternoon was stormy again, but we were not affected by it.

**April 15 — August 8, 1925** [Gulmarg](/#m=9/34.05765/74.38298&l=Gs&p=14/o)

By the end of July we had received all our outfit and, on the eighth of August, the

expedition left Gulmarg for Ganderbal on its long journey to Ladak and Chinese

Turkestan.

Ganderbal is conveniently reached by motor cars. It is the starting point of the Ladak

Treaty Route. Our caravans consisted of eighty-two pack ponies which were to carry our

loads up to Dras on the Ladak side of the Zoji Pass—an alarming number considering the

difficulties of obtaining sufficient forage.

We reached Ganderbal late in the evening of the same day, and found our caravan men

already camping in the courtyard of the resthouse. Great camp fires illumined the faces

of the men and the long rows of caravan animals.

**August 9, 1925** [Kangan](/#m=9/34.26284/74.90392&l=Gs&p=18/o)

supplies from the boats which had carried them from Srinagar. The men were new to

caravan work and had to be directed in every detail. Our headman, Wahaba Wanganu, was a

cold-blooded and remarkably efficient man who kept the rest of the expedition servants

well in hand.

of the river for about two miles, and it was a pleasant ride past flowering meadows.

shall limit myself to a few comments.

The Leh Treaty Route was made passable for peaceful caravans by the efforts of Colonel

Durand's column in 1891. The Kashmir State takes a great interest in this route, and the

transport and supplies are carefully organized. State granaries and spaciousserais or resthouses for trading caravans are maintained at various stages along the

route.

**August 10, 1925** [Gund](/#m=9/34.25778/75.08778&l=Gs&p=19/o)

**August 11, 1925** [Sonamarg](/#m=9/34.30191/75.2919&l=Gs&p=20/o)

Sonamarg, said to be the loveliest spot in Kashmir, did not strike us as a place of

exceptional natural beauty. We saw some fine meadows surrounded on all sides with pine

forests, but the neighboring mountains were hidden behind an impenetrable veil of mist

and clouds that hovered over the peaks.

The trail was slippery and our pack animals had a hard time on it. After three hours'

march, we reached Baltal, situated amid a birch and pine forest. The bungalow was

occupied by visitors from Srinagar, and we preferred to pitch our own camp on a fine

meadow outside the resthouse.

The rain started again toward evening and continued for the rest of the night. In the

early morning a party of Balti pony men arrived from the pass and reported a landslide

there. This bad news meant that we would have to stay for the day at Baltal and send up

noon the rain started again with renewed force and the dismal weather continued until

late into the evening. Everything was wet and we had to take the greatest precautions to

keep our boxes with food supplies dry. Our men returned toward evening, and reported

that the road was clear but that several other places were threatened by avalanches if

the rain continued. Luckily for us it stopped toward evening, and by five o'clock in the

morning the sky was beautifully clear.

**August 14, 1925** [Matayan](/#m=9/34.37018/75.59057&l=Gs&p=23/o) *Through: Zoji Pass, Mitsahoi*

**August 15 — 16, 1925** [Dras](/#m=9/34.42996/75.75098&l=Gs&p=25/o) *Through: Prandes*

roadside outside the villages of Dras. They are four in all

deities, and by Dr. Francke, who correctly described them in hisAntiquities of Indian

Tibet.

The first small stone represents a figure of a horseman, probably the portrait of a

local

raja

who erected the two bodhisattva images as recorded in the Sharada inscription on the

reverse of the stone. The stone next to the first one represents the Bodhisattva

Maitreya. The Bodhisattva is represented standing and attired in the princely costume of

a

rajakumara

or royal prince. In his raised right hand he holds a rosary and his left hand supports a

vase or

bum-pa. On his head he wears the diadem (mukuta). Below the principal figure one sees

figures of devotees. On the right corner of the stone there is a Sharada inscription,

which is unfortunately very much damaged.

I have already noticed elsewhere that the cult of Maitreya was associated with the

spread of Mahayana.

The presence of images of the Bodhisattva Maitreya along the caravan route

Kashmir-Ladak, and along other caravan routes of central Asia, seems to be significant.

The third stone represents the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara with two attendants. On the

stone above the head of one of the attendants, Dr. Francke has discovered a much-damaged

inscription.

The fourth stone represents a lotus flower. Dr. Francke dates the images approximately

from the tenth century A.D. They have undoubtedly some connection with the spread of

Buddhism into the kingdoms of westernmost Tibet and, as such, may belong to the ninth

century A.D.

Leaving Dras, the trail skirts barley fields fenced by low stone walls, and descends

toward the Dras River.

Mr. Landon, disappeared here, while on his way to Ladak. His body was subsequently found

and buried in the small European cemetery at Leh.

fine gorge.

resthouse, pleasantly situated in a garden of willows. Above the bungalow stand the

ruins of a castle said to have belonged to Khri Sultan of Sod, a place near Kargil. In

Shimsha Kharbu, Ladakis are already more prominent.

and crosses the river, whereas the trail to Kargil follows up the bank of the Suru

River.

the ministers of the Tibetan King Srong-btsan-sgam-po, the bLön-po Rig-pa-can, is said

to have been born there. His house is still shown situated near the bridge of

Shar-go-lha.

and Yang-lde-jo.

unusual grandeur. In sharp, bold outlines lie the rugged and rocky mountain ridges. The

small village of Mulbe clusters at the foot of a crag on which stands the small lamasery

of Mulbe. We spent the night at the resthouse, situated at some distance from the

village.

Francke, an admirable student of west Tibetan antiquities. His researches are embodied

in a learned article, "The Rock Inscriptions at Mulbe."

found on the rock on which one of the monasteries is situated.

chapel of Maitreya. It is situated a little above the road and is a typical Tibetan

house, with stables and servants' quarters on the ground floor and the living quarters

Wealthy Tibetan families very often spend considerable sums in memory of their departed

members. Large donations are presented to monasteries, which must pray for the salvation

and speedy reincarnation of the departed. The widow of the late landlord of Mulbe

employed a lama who spent his days murmuring prayers and rhythmically striking his drum.

The chapel contained some clay and brass images of Sakyamuni, the Teacher Padmasambhava,

and Tara, the Saviouress, besides several photographs representing the abbot or sku-shok of the Hemis Monastery, the Tashi Lama of Tsang, and the

Dalai Lama of Lhasa.

The housemaids were busy grinding barley and pressing oil on the flat roof of the house.

its summit. It is a tiny temple of the usual Tibetan architecture, situated inside a

small compound. The lha-khang is in charge of an aged priest.

Inside the temple stands an altar with a gilded clay image of Padmasambhava. A small

library containing the sixteen volumes of the Prajñaparamita or 'Bum is placed along the

walls of the temple. This monastery belongs to the Dug-pa sect of the unreformed

Nying-ma-pa School of Tibetan Buddhism.

Returning from the monastery, we examined the inscriptions carved on the rock surface.

Among them there is an edict promulgated by the King 'Bum-lde and a wedding

congratulation to King Jamyang ('Jam-dbyangs) and his queen.

**August 20, 1925** [Bod-Kharbu](/#m=9/34.34413/76.55812&l=Gs&p=32/o) *Through: Namike Pass*

very gradual

its many ruined castles that crown the barren summits of mountain spurs.

rnam-rgyal, 1620-40 A.D.).

barley fields carefully fenced with stone inclosures.

elevation of some 11,000 feet. On the opposite side of the river stand, high on a

steep rock, the important ruins of the castle of sTag-rtse.

Chigtan has also a small lamasery which might be assigned to the eleventh century A.D.

The old town of Kharbu, probably destroyed during the war waged by King Del-den

rnam-rgyal against the Khri Sultan of Kartse (about 1620-30 A.D.) lies on the sandstone

plateau above the village of Bod-Kharbu. Above the ruined town stands the old castle of

Kharbu, also in ruins.

Outside the village in a narrow gorge is situated a small Buddhist temple orlha-khang.

We found in it an old lama, worshiping several clay images, the one in the middle of the

altar representing Spyan-ras-gzigs Thugs-rje-chen-po, Avalokitesvara, the Merciful Lord.

The temple possessed no library of its own, except for some prayer manuals.

entrance into the narrow gorge, emerge from behind a low sandy spur. On entering the

narrow the local monastic tradition, it was founded by the famous mahasiddha Naropa who lived in the ninth century A.D. and with

whose name are associated many events in the church history of Ladak. The name of the

monastery is said to be a corruption of gYung-drung or

Svastika, the synonym of Bön, i.e., the primitive nature religion of Tibet. Dr. Francke

relates the following legend about the name of the monastery:

When Naropa ... arrived at the site the whole valley was filled with a lake which he

caused to dry up. The monastery received its name from a plantation of sacrificial grain

which miraculously grew into the shape of the Svastika (gYung-drung). It is interesting

that there are traces of deposits of a former lake all around the mountains of Lamayuru,

and it is strange that Drew in his book does not make any mention of them. But the

Ladakis must really have a geological instinct, to be able to invent stories of this

kind. They have also tales of the existence of former lakes at Leh and at Trilokanath in

Lahul. The name gYung-drung was of course not given by Naropa,

but must date back to a time long before he arrived in the country, as it was then the

foremost place of the Bön religion which is called gYung-drung Bön.

monks were reciting prayers—the library of the monastery containing a Kanjür and Tanjür

of the Narthang print—and the small courtyard in which the religious dances take place.

The Incarnate Lama of Lamayuru was away, and we were allowed to visit his living rooms,

which were, as usual, neat and orderly.

According to the lamas of the monastery, the oldest part of the convent is the temple

called Seng-ge sgang, situated at the southern end of the cliff of Lamayuru. The

principal image is that of Mañjushri or Jam-pe yang. According to a local tradition the

Seng-ge sgang temple dates back to the bKa-gdams period, that is the eleventh century

A.D. Dr. A. H. Francke, who visited this temple, thinks that the tradition is quite in

agreement with the general appearance of the temple.

Unfortunately the frescos that once adorned the walls of the edifice were in a very

dilapidated condition and one could hardly identify the images represented on them.

**August 23, 1925** [Nurla](/#m=9/34.30121/76.98095&l=Gs&p=35/o) *Through: Khalatse*

sNyur-la in the afternoon and took up quarters for the night in the small resthouse of

the place.

devoid of vegetation. Saspola itself is a large village with numerous tree groves.

to Rin-chen bzang-po. On the ruined foundation of the largest one has been erected a

small monastery, named Cham-pa gom-pa (Byams-pa dgon-pa). It contains a large image of

gilded clay of the Bodhisattva Maitreya and several other large images of standing

bodhisattvas. According to local tradition, the standing statue of Maitreya was

erected by Rin-chen bzang-po himself. Most probably the present statue dates from a

comparatively recent time and possibly replaced an older one, which might have dated

from the time of the great translator.

leaving the village of Saspola, the trail crosses a vast sandy plateau. Not far from the

route lies the important monastery of kLu-dkyil, popularly pronounced Likir. It was

founded by King Lha-chen rgyal-po (ca. 1050-80 A.D.). The trail descends into the deeper

valley and reaches the romantically situated hamlet of Basgo, famous for one of the

oldest monasteries of Ladak and for the ancient palace of its kings.

On the twenty-sixth of August we started at an early hour on the last seventeen miles to

Leh.

mountains.

built by King Bkra-shis rnam-rgyal (1500-1532). The monastery belongs to the

'Bri-khung-pa sect and possesses a finelha-khang or temple.

We were entertained with tea and sweets in the private apartments of the sku-shok or Incarnate Lama of the monastery. The sku-shok himself was absent at Ri-dzong, where he was undergoing a

course of instruction in Buddhist metaphysics. In his absence the monastery was

administered by Lama Lobzang, a pleasant old gentleman of quiet manners, who made a very

good impression on all of us. He was one of those erudite lamas who carry in themselves

centuries of religious culture.

The private rooms were neat and well furnished in Tibetan style, with painted glass

cases containing clay and brass images and a small library of religious texts destined

for the private use of the sku-shok. His mantle was thrown on his low

throne standing at the northern wall of the room. After a pleasant hour spent in the

company of the abbot and his assistant, we climbed to the roof of the monastery and

enjoyed the magnificent view over the vast and open Indus Valley, north of which lies

the capital of Ladak.

except for several days spent on a journey to the famous Hemis Monastery and other

places of interest round the town.

portion of the journey across the great mountain route to Chinese Turkestan. We had to

dismiss all our Kashmiri servants, who were quite unsuitable for a hard mountain

journey, and engaged new, experienced men. The problem of transport also gave much

anxiety, for it was imperative to get reliable caravan men and good animals. Most of the

caravans which reached Leh had very poor animals requiring several weeks of

recuperation.

After some search and lengthy consultations with the British aqsa-qal of Leh, we signed an agreement with Nazar Bai, a Karghalik caravan man, who

possessed thirty-six pack horses in good condition. He had come in July and his drove of

horses had been grazing for two months in a garden outside Leh. We needed in all

seventy-six pack animals to carry the expedition's baggage, and there still remained

thirty horses to be found in addition to those we already had.

Every day we went round the serais or resthouses for Yarkend

traders, inquiring for new arrivals or starting caravans. Finally we succeeded in

finding the required thirty pack horses, belonging to an Afghan trader, Omar Khan, a

resident of Yarkend. His horses had come only recently from the passes and were in poor

condition, but the owner promised to feed them well the remaining three weeks and to

have them fit by the date of departure. We had to agree, for this was the only solution

of our transport problem. On such a difficult and deserted route as the Karakorum trade

route, it is always advisable to make use of hired transport and not to risk a caravan

of purchased animals. The difficulties of this mountain route, its rarefied atmospheres

and absolute barrenness, and the great percentage of caravan animals that perish yearly,

make traveling very expensive. The prices for one pack horse range from sixty rupees to

eighty rupees from Leh to Yarkend or Khotan. We fixed the price of one horse at

seventy-six rupees, with the obligation of carrying the expedition's baggage in

twenty-four days from Leh to Khotan.

The caravan men were sturdy Turkis from Karghalik and Khotan, in large chapans or coats, soft leather boots or charuq, and

large oval fur caps protecting the wearer from the bitter winds and gales of the

highlands. It was strange to hear the strongly guttural sounds of the eastern Turki, so

different from the soft Urdu of India and the fluent speech of Lhasa Tibetans. Some of

the men knew a little Chinese, and our Chinese interpreter was able to make some sort of

conversation with them.

Once the transport problem had been settled, we had more time to inspect the interesting

locality of Leh and its vicinity.

The modern city of Leh is situated at the junction of several important central Asian

caravan routes, hence its importance for the history of the Indian border country. At

least three long and difficult routes connect Leh with Lhasa, the capital of Tibet

proper. The first of them crosses the Tibetan uplands and passes north of the great

lakes; Ngan-tse tsho, Chyaring tsho (Kya-ring tsho), and Nam tsho, the Tengri-nor of our

maps. It joins the great Mongolia-Lhasa route in the important frontier center of

Nag-chu dzong (a Tibetan dzong is the administrative center of

a district and not a fortress, as is often recorded).

The second of the three routes crosses the Tibetan upland to the holy Kailasa Range and

strikes south of the Great Lakes: Dangra yum-tsho, Ngan-tse, and Tengri-nor. Travelers

by this route travel direct to Lhasa across the high pass of Go-ring La in the Nyen-chen

Thang La Range.

The third route follows the course of the Brahmaputra and passes through Saga dzong,

north of the river. From here it strikes either along the bank of the Brahmaputra to

Lhartse dzong, or crosses the river and passes through Tingri on the Nepal border. In

both cases the route runs through Shigatse to Lhasa. This last route is used by most of

the Ladaki traders traveling to Lhasa and by the Embassy from the Maharaja of Kashmir to

the Court of Lhasa.

The Karakorum route, aptly called the highest trade route in the world, connects Leh

with distant China and the oases of Chinese Turkestan. Traders from Yarkend, Kashgar,

and Khotan, the principal oases of southwestern Chinese Turkestan, follow it on their

way to India. From Leh the central Asian caravans travel to Kashmir across the Zoji La,

or through Zangskar, Lahul, the valley of Kulu and the native states of Mandi to

Hoshiarpur and Amritsar, the two great emporiums of Punjab. This Turkestan trade route

has increased greatly in importance during the last ten years, and the Government of

India has facilitated by several measures the passage of trading caravans over Indian

territory. With the closing of the Russian frontier and the recent unrest and civil war

in western China, the Turkestan trade turned southward to India, and we found the route

alive with caravan parties which were braving the icy winds and frequent avalanches on

the mountain crests.

Such a favorable situation makes Leh an exceedingly interesting place for archaeological

and ethnographical research. The two principal bazaars of the town are thronged by a

multicolored crowd, among which the neatly attired Turkestan Turks are prominent. Huge

bales of merchandise, containing Turkestan felts or nimdah, which come from

Khotan, Guma, and Yarkend and command good prices on Indian markets, stand in front of

the open shops. Some of these felts are very decorative in design and, as products, are

much superior to similar felts made by the Mongols or even the Chinese. In camp they are

indispensable, for they serve as floor covering for tents and as bedding for the