󠀰󠀸VIIꓸ Mongolia - blame None

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# George Roerich. Trails to the Inmost Asia

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## VII. Mongolia

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**September 5 — 8, 1926** [Verkhne-Udinsk](/#m=9/51.84066/107.58362&l=Gs&p=192/o) *Through: Irkutsk by train*

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The Siberian Express rushed rapidly through the lowlands of Siberia, with their dark

virgin forests of pines and cedars. Early in the morning the train passed Irkutsk and

its cathedral, rising against the luminous and transparent sky of early dawn. Then came

the beautiful southern shore of the great Lake Baikal with its calm surface girded by

mountain ranges. Beyond Baikal, the country became mountainous and the train steamed

around forest-clad hills. It was Buriatia, and the Buriats in their pointed fur caps and

blue coats became more and more prominent on the station platforms. Late in the evening

the train reached Verkhne-Udinsk, the capital of the Buriat Republic. Here we spent

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three busy days arranging for motor cars to carry us and our baggage to Mongolia.

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**September 9, 1926** [Troitskosavsk](/#m=9/50.35855/106.45203&l=Gs&p=134/o) *Through: Geese Lake*

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Early on the morning of September 9 we left Verkhne-Udinsk in two Dodge cars, crossed

the broad Selenga on a ferry, and continued our journey along the motor road to

Troitkosavsk, the last Russian frontier town, once a wealthy colony of tea merchants.

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After two hours' ride, the country became more wooded and we skirted fine pine

forests. Unfortunately the day was dull and rain clouds hovered over the horizon.

Drizzling rain and cold winds made the journey far from pleasant. The road was soft

and in several places we had to drive over the steppe in order to avoid the sandy and

muddy route, which was still under repair. For the whole of the distance from

Verkhne-Udinsk to the frontier, it was almost deserted. Only once or twice did we see

Buriats on horseback or in small two-wheeled carriages.

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In the afternoon we passed the Geese Lake with the famous Geese Lake Monastery or

da-tshang (Tib. gra-tshang). This is the reputed seat of Buddhist learning in

Transbaikalia, residence of the Buriat Pandita khan-po, with a well-known printing

establishment that issues fine xylographs, greatly in demand throughout Buddhist

Siberia, the Astrakhan steppes, and Mongolia.

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In the afternoon we reached the small Cossack settlement of Selenginsk with its old

church and several old houses dating back to the time of the Decembrist movement, many

of whose leaders were exiled to this frontier settlement.

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A few miles above Selenginsk, we crossed the Selenga a second time. The crossing was

dangerous, for the current is very swift and there is no ferry. The cars are carried

across on boats—one car at a time. One of our cars almost slid into the river through

a careless movement of the driver, but the boatmen rescued it in time.

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Approaching Troitskosavsk, the landscape becomes more hilly. The road runs through a

series of valleys surrounded by low sand hills covered with sturdy pine forests. Our

progress was very slow, for the route was sandy, and after the recent heavy rains,

extremely slippery and muddy. Often we had to get out and push the cars along the

slopes. We were greatly handicapped by the lack of headlights on one of the cars. About

midnight, in complete darkness, we entered the town of Troitskosavsk and drove to the

hotel—a large white building, much superior to the hotel accommodations at

Verkhne-Udinsk.

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**September 10, 1926** [Altin-Bulak](/#m=9/49.87913/106.24126&l=Gs&p=353/o)

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Next day we rode out to the frontier post to have our passports stamped. After all the

necessary formalities were over, we crossed the border and drove toward a small

guardhouse occupied by Mongol soldiers in Mongol fur coats with modern rifles and

sabers. One of them jumped into our car and accompanied us to the city of

Altin-Bulak—the Mongol frontier town, formerly known under the name of Mai-ma-ch'eng,

the chief frontier

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entrepôt

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of Chinese trade.

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The surrounding barren hills and the peculiar transparent atmosphere strongly reminded

us of the central Asian highlands. We stood on a great geographical divide; behind us

lay the wooded country of Siberia, and in front of us, as far as eye could see, spread

the vast steppe country of central Asia.

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Altin-Bulak is a small town with a floating Russian, Mongolian, and Chinese population.

During the severe fighting round Troitskosavsk and Altin-Bulak in 1918-21, it was razed

to the ground and its Chinese population massacred. Since those bloody days, the number

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of Chinese traders has greatly diminished and many of the big Chinese concerns are

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closed or occupied by Mongols.

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We had to spend a considerable time in the office of the Mongol Frontier Commissioner,

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who was absent. It was a small wooden house of semi-Chinese, semi-European architecture.

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Long tables filled the rooms and on high tabourets sat the Mongol clerks. Most of them

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were dressed in the national Mongol coats with large red and yellow sashes and the large

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Mongol boots with repand toes or

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*gutul*

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. They quietly smoked their long Chinese pipes and attentively scrutinized us. One of

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them walked about the room, stopped in front of us, and pensively remarked "America!"

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One of the clerks, a young

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*bichéchi*

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or secretary, read aloud from a big scroll of paper. These Mongol clerks have a curious

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way of reading correspondence and documents aloud with a peculiar intonation. Sometimes

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one sees several of them sitting together and repeating aloud the texts of documents

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they are writing. One always recognizes a

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*yamen*

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or government secretariat by the peculiar buzzing sound of voices coming through the

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open windows and doors. These governmental clerks are a class by themselves, the lay

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intellectuals of Mongolia.

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About four o'clock in the afternoon all formalities were over and we once more started

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on the journey. We drove toward the immense and boundless steppes of Mongolia, the

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country of the greatest conquerors of Asia. The road imperceptibly rises and we crossed

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several low ridges of grass-covered hills. Like a sparkling white necklace seem their

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*subur-ghans*

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*stupas*

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—the true frontier signs of Buddhist Mongolia.

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The crests of the hills are crowned with pine forests, which form a dark line against

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the glowing sky of sunset. The country is completely deserted. Only seldom does one see

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a Mongol horseman—a bright colored coat, the high Mongol hat, picturesquely thrown

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backward, and a sunburnt face with sharp-cut features. He halts for a moment, directs an

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inquisitive glance toward us, and gallops away into the immensity of his native steppes.

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Tomorrow the whole neighborhood for several hundred miles around will know about the

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passage of several foreigners on two

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*gal-terge*

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or "fire-chariots," that is, motor cars. The Mongols are in the habit of covering

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hundreds of miles visiting each other. News often travels faster by horse than by

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telegraph or motor car. The present Commander-in-Chief of Mongolia is known to ride

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three hundred miles a day to pay a brief visit to friends in the steppe.

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Strange is the country of Mongolia. One drives for hours and hours without seeing anyone

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on the road save Russian and Chinese workmen constructing the new motor road from

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Kiakhta to Urga.

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In the evening and in full darkness, we reached the river Iro, one of the tributaries of

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the Selenga. On the northern bank of the river stood a number of Mongol felt tents,

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occupied by Russian and Chinese workmen. We persuaded the ferryman to take us over and

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camped in the open, close to some wretched Mongol tents, from which emerged two old

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women covered with rags. The night was cold and we had to light camp fires. White mist

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rose from the river surface and enveloped the farther bank. To the south rose dark

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silhouettes of forest-clad mountains. In a nearby lamasery the lamas sounded the

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conchshell for the evening prayer.

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Here on the banks of the Iro, a boy was recently born who manifested strange faculties.

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Mysterious signs accompanied his birth. His mother, a

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*shaman*

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woman, heard mysterious voices, and the boy himself uttered amazing prophecies about the

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future glory of Buddhist Mongolia. The news of the appearance of the strange child

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spread like lightning all over Mongolia. The lamas everywhere whispered about the coming

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of a new incarnation of Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu. The Government of the Republic was

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obliged to send out a commission of inquiry and to post proclamations in Urga to calm

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the population. It is sometimes difficult to discount rumors by printed words and the

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news about the new Bogdo Gegen continues to agitate the minds of the deeply religious

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Mongols. This boy is not the only candidate to the vacant throne of the Mongolian

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Pontiff. There is another—a boy known to have appeared in inner Mongolia, who is now

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studying in some of the lamaseries within the Chinese border.

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**September 11, 1926**

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We started before dawn and drove toward a low pass leading across the forest-clad ridge,

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south of the river. The newly constructed road was muddy and sandy. Our cars sank deep

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into the mud and had to be rescued by horsemen.

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From the summit of the pass one has a broad vista over the undulating country of rolling

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hills. The descent leads to the broad river valley of the Bain-gol, a narrow rivulet

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with treacherous and swampy bed. Several cars, traveling from Urga, stood stranded on

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its banks. They had endeavored to cross the river but the water had filled the engines.

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They all warned us that it was foolhardy to try to cross, but we decided to make the

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effort. We piled all our baggage inside the cars and covered the radiators with several

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sheets of waterproof canvas. Luckily several horsemen came to our aid and offered their

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assistance. Ropes were tied to the front of the cars and the riders tied the other ends

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to the pommels of their saddles. When we were all set, the drivers started their cars

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and with sudden wild shouts the horsemen rushed toward the opposite river bank. The

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water splashed high into the air, but the two cars were safely pulled across the river.

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From Bain-gol the road led over fine grazing lands. Herds of horses and camels wandered

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on the slopes of the hills. We passed ruined stone hovels—ruins of Chinese farmsteads

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destroyed during the civil war of 1919-21. The mountainous country continued up to the

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Khara-gol, another important tributary of the Selenga, which waters a broad valley with

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a flat bottom. A wooden bridge spans the river, by which we camped for the night. It was

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clear but exceptionally cold, and in the morning the small pools of water were covered

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with a thin crust of ice.

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**Sep 12, 1926 — Apr 12, 1927** [Urga](/#m=9/47.91785/106.95691&l=Gs&p=135/o)

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We made an early start again and drove over a fine mountainous country of grass-covered

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valleys and forest-clad hills. These hills are the branches of the Kentei Mountain

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system, where General P. K. Kozlov, the eminent Russian explorer, made his brilliant

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discoveries of ancient textiles in the so-called "animal style." Only a few

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miles before reaching Urga, the road emerged into the vast valley of the Tola River. To

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the south of the valley rises the magnificent Bogdo ula, a mountain clad with virgin

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forests, the haunts of a rich animal life. The gilded roofs of the religious edifices of

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the capital of Mongol Pontiffs shone in the bright Mongolian sun.

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Before entering the city, all travelers have to produce their frontier passes that are

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obtained from the Mongol Frontier Commissariat, at a small military outpost situated

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just outside the city boundary. We halted at the small wooden hovel and handed over our

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passes to a grim Mongol soldier in fur-lined helmet and khaki overcoat. He took our

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papers to the hut and disappeared for a considerable length of time. Our patience being

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exhausted, we entered the hut to find out the cause of the delay. The two petty officers

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were playing chess and the soldier with our passes was waiting until his chiefs had

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finished! We protested and our passes were duly stamped, and the officers continued

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their absorbing game. Time means little in Urga, as anywhere in central Asia!

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We were very lucky to find a small house of four rooms and two spacious courtyards with

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stables, for the headquarters of the expedition. Space does not permit a description of

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all the various day by day activities of the expedition. The great crossing of central

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Asia, through Mongolia and Tibet, to India, had to be organized and the route carefully

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studied. From Mongolia, Professor Roerich also sent paintings to the Roerich Museum in

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New York, a unique pictorial record of the country and its inner life.

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Modern Urga is a city of deep contrasts, typical of a country that is experiencing a

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period of fundamental changes. Modern conveyances, such as airplanes and motor cars,

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contest their right with the time-honored means of transport—the long files of majestic

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camels and the clumsy bullock carts.

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Ancient Lamaist Urga presents great interest to a student of Buddhism. Urga or Ulan

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Bator Khoto, the capital of autonomous Mongolia and the greatest city of outer Mongolia,

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is situated at the confluence of the rivers Tola and Selbi, some one hundred and seventy

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miles from Kiakhta on the Siberian border. It is situated in the territory of the

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Tushetu-khan

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*aimak*

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, or province.

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As one emerges from the Dolan-dabhur Mountains, northwest of Urga, one sees the city

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lying in the broad valley of the Tola River, extending about twenty miles from east to

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west and some nine miles north to south. The entire valley is dominated by the massive

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Bogdo ula, which rises south of the valley and forms the southern boundary of forests

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in this part of Mongolia. From the east the valley of the Tola is sheltered by the low

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ridges of Bain-khutul, which rise to a considerable height at some distance from Urga.

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To the north of the valley lies the highly intersected mountain group of Chingiltu ula

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and its northwestern branch of Dolan-dabhur. To the west rise the mountains of

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Sangi-yin ula. The valley is open to the southwest, toward the upper course of the

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Tola.

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The vegetation of the valley is very scant and most of the neighboring hills are covered

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with grass. Small groves of trees are found along the Tola River at the foot of the

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Bogdo ula and toward the hills of the Sangi-yin ula.

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The only wooded part of the vicinity is the magnificent Bogdo ula—the true natural park

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of Mongolia, where since the eighteenth century the hewing of wood and hunting have been

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strictly prohibited. The mountain is considered holy and in the times of the Incarnate

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Lama rulers of Mongolia, offerings were made to it twice a year. The cult was begun in

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1778 A.D. when a petition was presented to the throne, on behalf of the Urga

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authorities, requesting the Imperial Court to legalize the cult of the sacred mountain.

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The petition was based on the belief that Chinghiz Khan was born at the foot of the

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Bogdo ula. The petition was granted and the Emperor was pleased to grant an Imperial

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Decree ordering the sending of a prescribed quantity of incense sticks and pieces of

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silk from Peking twice a year.

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To a naturalist, the forest reserves of the Bogdo ula are of unique interest. Here on

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the forest-clad slopes of the holy mountain he can study the fauna of Mongolia and

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observe many of the larger animals, which have become almost extinct in other parts of

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Mongolia. The law forbidding hunting and the cutting of trees is still enforced by the

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Republican Government of Mongolia, which maintains police posts in the numerous gorges

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on the mountain side. On the southern slope of the mountain, stands the important

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monastery of Mañjushri-khit, famous throughout Mongolia for the austere life of its

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monks and the learning of its abbot who exercises considerable influence on the

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political affairs of the country.

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The city of Urga is spread over a large area, and consists of a permanent settlement

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surrounded by a large nomadic colony of felt tents, in which most of the Urga citizens

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live during the cold winter months.

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The city is known to Europeans under the name of Urga, which corresponds to the

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Mongolian word

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*örgö*

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meaning "princely camp, palace." This word is never used by Mongols, although

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this was probably the case in ancient times, when the valley of the Tola was used as a

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residence by important church dignitaries. The Mongols invariably call it Ikhe-küren or

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Ikhe-kürä, the "Great Monastery." In everyday language it is called simply

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Küren, or by its Sino-Mongolian designation Da-kürä (Ta-kürä, Chinese transcription Ta

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k'u-lun). Under this last name it is generally known to the Tibetans (Ta-khu-re). In

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November, 1924, the Ikhe-Khuruldan, or the Great National Assembly of Mongolia, changed

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the name of the city to Ulan Bator Khoto, or the "City of the Red Warrior."

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But the time-honored name is still universally used.

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The earliest notice about Urga is found in the Mongol chronicle

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*Erdeni-yin erikhe*

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, about the year 1649 A.D. It is said in this passage, that Ündür-Gegen, the first

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historical Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu of Khalkha, or the sixteenth incarnation according to

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the Lamaist tradition, established on his return from Tibet seven monastic colleges or

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*da-tshang*

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(Mongol;

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*aimak*

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) in the Nom-un Ikhe-küren. The Ikhe-küren in the valley of the Tola River was probably

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only a temporary residence of the Incarnate Lama of Khalkha, for Ündür-Gegen himself

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spent the rest of his life in Jehol, Dolon-nor, and Peking (he died in Peking in 1723).

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We know that many of his successors on the pontifical throne used to reside in different

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parts of outer Mongolia. The monastery Ikhe-küren itself was not a permanent settlement.

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Since 1719 A.D. it had constantly changed its site.

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In 1741 A.D. Ikhe-küren, or Urga, became the permanent residence of the Je-tsün tam-pa

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Hutukhtu. The growth of the monastery begins from that date. In 1756 was established the

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first Theological School for the study of the

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*tshan-nyid*

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(

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*mtshan-ñid*

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) or the higher metaphysics of Buddhism. The school was given the right to confer

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learned distinctions and lamas began to flock to the monastery. The Chinese were not

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slow to recognize the growing importance of the monastery. The creation of a permanent

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center of administration and religious life was of great importance to them for it

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facilitated the difficult task of controlling the then turbulent Mongolian tribes. In

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1741 they created the post of

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*shandzotba*

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(a word borrowed from Tibetan,

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*chän-dzö-pa, phyag-mdzod-pa*

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) intrusted with the supervision of the large estates of the Hutukhtu and his serfs. In

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1758, following the defeat of the Oirat power, the Chinese Government established an

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Imperial Resident in Urga, who was officially directed to assist the

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*shandzotba*

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in administering Urga. This official was intrusted with all frontier affairs. Three

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years later, in 1761, a Manchu official was appointed to assist the First Resident who

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until then was always a Mongol prince. Ikhe-küren and the adjacent trade settlement

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gradually changed into a permanent settlement. In 1779 a petition was presented to

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Peking to allow the monastery to settle permanently on the banks of the Selbi River.

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In the vicinity of the monastery town, a considerable colony of Russian and Chinese

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merchants was established. The lamas contended that Chinese shopkeepers built their

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shops too close to the monastery. On several occasions they presented petitions to

350

Peking, but the Chinese authorities were not always ready to limit the number of Chinese

351

shops in the vicinity of the monastery and thus deliver a heavy blow to Chinese trade in

352

Urga. As is done usually, they allowed the matter to drag. The dissatisfied lamas moved

353

the monastery nearer the Tola River, but each time returned to their former grounds.

354

After much delay, the Chinese authorities notified the Chinese merchants that no shops

355

were allowed to hinder the path reserved for the annual Maidari procession. In view of

356

the pressing request of the lamas to move the shops a little farther, a big trading

357

settlement known under the name of Mai-ma-ch'eng was founded some six miles east of

358

the

359

*küren*

360

. These restrictions upon the traders imposed by the lamas gradually disappeared and at

361

present the

362

*küren*

363

is surrounded by numerous shops and big trading establishments.

364

365

In the course of years Urga became the religious and administrative center of Mongolia,

366

the seat of the Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu, and the residence of the Chinese Imperial

367

Commissioner.

368

369

In 1786 A.D. an imperial decree conferred upon the Imperial Commissioner in Urga the

370

right of final decision in the administration of the Tushetu-khan and Setsen Khan

371

*aimaks*

372

, the central and eastern provinces of outer Mongolia.

373

374

During the nineteenth century, Urga rapidly grew in importance. Through its gates passed

375

most of the tea trade going from Kiakhta to Peking. The yearly export to Siberia greatly

376

increased and an important colony of Russian merchants was established in the city. Urga

377

thus became the chief

378

*entrepôt*

379

of Mongol-Russian trade. In 1863 an imperial Russian consulate was created, and from

380

that date Urga acquired that cosmopolitan character which is characteristic of the

381

present-day Ulan Bator.

382

383

The Chinese colony was also a powerful factor in the development of the Mongol capital.

384

Big Peking and Shan-hsi firms established branches in Urga and throughout Mongolia. In

385

several decades outer Mongolia became almost wholly dependent economically on China. In

386

1912 Urga was officially proclaimed the capital of autonomous Mongolia, and has retained

387

this distinction during the present republican period of Mongolia.

388

389

Such is the brief history of the city. Every new arrival is struck by its peculiar

390

half-permanent, half-nomadic character. The city is the result of a transition period

391

during which the country has abandoned its past but has not as yet absorbed western

392

civilization. Within the boundary of the old settlement, a new city is growing with

393

electric lights and motor car traffic. Amid imposing temples with their roofs aglitter

394

in the bright Mongolian sun, are scattered miserable hovels. The high wooden palisades,

395

that serve as inclosures for most of the Urga houses, give a monotonous character to the

396

narrow streets. Gray, weathered, wooden palisades and red-painted gates, distinguished

397

only by small wooden plates on which are written the house numbers in Mongolian—such is

398

the Urga street. Inside these wooden palisades is usually a large courtyard with a small

399

one-storied house of Russian or Chinese architecture. If the courtyard belongs to a

400

Mongol or Buriat, a Mongol felt tent, or several of them, are pitched beside the house.

401

A Mongol uses the house only during the summer; during the cold winter he has his

402

quarters in the warm felt tent with wooden floor and an iron or brick stove. If large

403

and clean, such winter tents look very cozy. Very often, in the families of wealthy

404

citizens, they are covered with thick white felt ornamented on the edges. Inside such a

405

tent one finds a low seat, which is used as a bed by night, or a bed of European or

406

Chinese make. In the center of the tent is usually the stove with an iron chimney going

407

through an opening in the roof. Besides the bed of the owner, one usually finds a glass

408

case with sacred images, serving as an altar. Before the images stand the "eight

409

happy offerings"—seven metal cups arranged in a row with their water offering, in

410

the middle of the row, a burning lamp or

411

*chökung*

412

. In wealthy houses such offering cups are made of heavy silver and are richly

413

ornamented. In poorer households they are replaced by simple brass cups.

414

415

Some of the more religious possess good collections of religious books, brought at great

416

cost from Tibet, usually from Lhasa, Kum-bum, and Labrang. Most of these books,

417

especially the

418

*Kānjur*

419

and

420

*Tānjur*

421

, are brought as objects of worship only and so are badly printed on inferior paper. It

422

is a well-known fact that the copies of the

423

*Kānjur*

424

and

425

*Tānjur*

426

produced at the old Narthang Press for rich Mongol pilgrims are of a very inferior

427

quality, both as regards paper and printing; some of the pages are nothing but black

428

spots of ink, and many of them are missing. Infinitely superior are the

429

*Kānjur*

430

and

431

*Tānjur*

432

printed at Derge gön-chen; they are usually on thick Chinese paper and the printing is

433

done from metal block prints. The size of the volumes in the Derge

434

*Kānjur*

435

is a little smaller than that of the Narthang print.

436

437

The art of printing was introduced into Tibet from China. The first Tibetan books are

438

said to have been printed at Peking about 1069 A.D. The first Tibetan

439

*Tripitaka*

440

was probably printed between 1311 and 1319 A.D. The present Narthang print of the

441

*Kānjur*

442

and

443

*Tānjur*

444

dates from the year 1747 A.D. Many of the wooden block prints from which printing is

445

done have been badly effaced by time and usage. To remedy the situation, the present

446

Dalai Lama some years ago ordered the cutting of new block prints at the printing

447

establishments of Potala Palace. This new Potala

448

*Kānjur*

449

is now ready for print, but so far as I know no copies of it exist outside Lhasa. It is

450

not known whether block prints for a

451

*Tānjur*

452

have been cut. The new Potala

453

*Kānjur*

454

is said to contain one hundred and eight volumes, but whether it is better than the old

455

Narthang

456

*Kānjur*

457

or the Derge

458

*Kānjur*

459

remains to be seen.

460

461

In many of the tents inhabited by officials and other educated Mongols, we found

462

electric lights. Furniture of European make is seldom seen. Most of the Mongols squat on

463

the floor or use thick mattresses laid out along the walls of the tent. Large wooden

464

boxes, often painted in bright colors—red, yellow, or blue—serve as storerooms, and

465

usually stand on both sides of the door. Many of the European colony prefer to live in

466

such tents, for they find them much warmer in winter and better protection from the

467

bitterly cold winter winds that sweep the valley of the Tola.

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470

Quite recently attempts were made to adapt the form of a Mongol felt tent to buildings

471

and thus create a national Mongol style. On the vast town site of Ulan Bator, across

472

which Mongol horsemen race on their swift steeds, stands a strange building; upon a

473

polygonal foundation rises a huge dome supported by low walls. The whole structure

474

reminds one of a gigantic Mongol felt tent. The outside of the building is decorated

475

with figures of the eight happy signs. It is the national theater of Mongolia and the

476

People's Club. The architect intended to express the idea of a nomad tent in a

477

monumental creation. So far as I know, this is the first attempt of the kind. During our

478

stay in Urga, the building was still under construction and I did not see the interior

479

arrangements. I do not think that the

480

*yurta*

481

motive is suited for buildings. The domed structure is too western in character, and at

482

best looks like a Mohammedan mosque without its wonderfully designed lines. The Tibetan

483

architecture is much more monumental and is better adapted to modern requirements. It

484

permits the construction of high buildings without infringing upon the character of the

485

style. Some attempts along this line have already been made in Urga, and it is to be

486

hoped that the Mongol Government will follow this example in erecting new buildings for

487

its secretariats.

488

489

Unfortunately most of the modern buildings in Urga are of an indifferent European style

490

or like miserable Chinese hovels, which do not at all suit the character of the city.

491

The summer palaces of the late Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu, now transformed into a national

492

museum and school, situated some two miles from Urga on the banks of the Tola, are of a

493

mixed style and have no particular interest. The brick walls in Chinese style, in front

494

of the main entrance gates, are riddled with bullets that badly damaged some of the

495

bas-relief—traces of the severe fighting that took place here in January, 1921.

496

497

The rich private collections of the deceased Hutukhtu consisted of a remarkable

498

assortment of things—valuable sacred images from Tibet and Peking; a considerable

499

library of religious and secular books in Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese, and Manchu; all

500

sorts of European technical devices and curios, cinemas, photographic cameras and field

501

glasses, telescopes; valuable Chinese porcelain and bronzes; a great number of modern

502

European firearms; stores of cigarettes of an unusual length; stuffed animals; and last

503

but not least a small menagerie of wild animals. All these have now been confiscated by

504

the different government departments or sold on the Urga market.

505

506

The gilded and brightly painted state carriages of the Hutukhtu were sold at auction and

507

many of them are now plying between Urga and its suburbs as the property of Chinese

508

coachmen. One very often sees these strange state carriages, created by the whim of an

509

oriental ruler, driving through the streets of Urga. These public omnibuses, drawn by

510

two miserable shaggy horses with Chinese and Mongols crowded into them, add much color

511

to the picturesqueness of Urga streets.

512

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514

Another building of interest is the former palace of Sain Noin Khan, the former Prime

515

Minister of Mongolia; it is situated between Urga and the Tola River and at one time was

516

one of the finest buildings of Urga.

517

518

The Chinese fort, built in 1883, during a sudden mobilization in outer Mongolia, is at

519

present in complete ruin. Outside the city are the barracks of the Mongol troops, which

520

consist only of cavalry units, for the Mongols make splendid cavalrymen but very poor

521

infantry.

522

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524

To the northwest of the large town site are the marketplace and the trading quarters.

525

Here one finds all the principal trading establishments of the city; the Mongolian

526

Central Coöperative Society, the Urga Coöperative Society, and a number of privately

527

owned shops, mostly branches of Harbin firms. A little farther away lies the large

528

Chinese commercial quarter, situated close to the Monastery of Ganden. The narrow

529

streets are lined on both sides by high brick or stone walls, with great gates bearing

530

the name of the firm written in Chinese, Mongol, and Tibetan. As in most of the Chinese

531

houses, the shop itself and the storerooms are situated in the courtyard away from the

532

noise of the streets. The courtyards as a rule are clean and the inside of the shops

533

neat and cozy. Mongol customers spend several hours examining the wares and settling the

534

prices. Tea is invariably offered to customers, and the employees of the firm try their

535

best to induce them to buy or borrow goods.

536

537

On the western end of these streets of the Chinese quarter, which all run from east to

538

west, stand numerous small shops of Chinese artisans, silversmiths, metal workers,

539

carpenters, coffin makers, tailors, restaurants; shops trading in religious books and

540

objects of art; fur merchants, etc. Each street has gates at either end, which are

541

closed at night, so that the whole quarter looks like one huge compound.

542

543

Round the market and shopping district cluster innumerable houses and hovels, harboring

544

most of the Urga population. Some of the streets are so narrow that only one rider can

545

pass in one direction, and if a motor car ventures into the streets all the traffic

546

coming from the opposite end has to turn back and ride to the crossing place. Sometimes

547

one sees horsemen and camel caravans suddenly turn backward for a considerable distance;

548

it means that a motor car is coming.

549

550

Much has been written about the smell and dirt of Urga. In recent years the municipal

551

authorities have tried their best to improve the sanitary conditions of the streets by

552

removing refuse heaps and disinfecting the quarters of the poor. Naturally, much remains

553

yet to be done, for Urga streets know no pavements and the drainage system is in its

554

infancy. In the whole of the city there is no water supply, and the growing population

555

is obliged to carry water from the Tola River. In springtime the river water is usually

556

muddy and has an unpleasant smell. Only the dry climate prevents the spread of

557

epidemics.

558

559

Great packs of homeless dogs, huge black animals with shaggy fur, roam in the streets

560

and often attack men. The municipality has endeavored to fight these pests, but has been

561

handicapped by the population which believes it sinful to take life. The city elders had

562

recourse to a wonderful measure. They ordered all the stray dogs to be collected in a

563

huge wooden inclosure, and fed the animals at state expense. This has been an additional

564

cost to the state and has failed to free the city of dogs, which still infest the

565

squares and streets. They are exceedingly fierce and in the evening it is sometimes

566

dangerous to pass the refuse heaps on which they are encamped. I have been obliged to

567

fight a pack of dogs even on horseback, for they jump and try to bite the rider's

568

feet. A story is related of a sentry who was overpowered by the dogs and devoured by

569

night, despite his rifle and sword. The man tried his best to fight the hungry pack and

570

even killed a number of the dogs, but the rest soon bore him to the ground and tore him

571

to pieces. The only traces left of him were his rifle and sword and part of his coat,

572

which were found the next morning. His cap, boots, and even ammunition belts—everything

573

was torn to pieces.

574

575

Similar difficulties are said to have been experienced by the newly established police

576

force at Lhasa. The police officers of the Tibetan capital decided to clear the city of

577

its dogs in order to improve the sanitary conditions, but the populace and the monks of

578

the three great monasteries made a violent protest and the project had to be abandoned.

579

580

The Urga dogs are the scavengers of the city. Mongols seldom bury their dead. Usually

581

the corpses are carried to a valley north of Urga, where they are thrown on the ground

582

to be devoured by dogs. The animals perform their duty with surprising rapidity and

583

after a few minutes nothing is left but scattered bones. The unpleasant part of the

584

procedure is that the dogs often carry human bones, sometimes whole skulls, into the

585

city. I once found a fresh human skull with skin and hair lying by the roadside not far

586

from the house occupied by the expedition. A dog had brought it during the night and

587

then abandoned it.

588

589

The Chinese cemetery in Mai-ma-ch'eng, with wooden coffins placed on the ground

590

unburied, presents a horrible spectacle. The dogs are unable to destroy the bodies

591

because of the coffins and the smell that permeates the place is indescribable. Some of

592

the coffins have fallen to pieces and one can see exposed heads and feet which the dogs

593

hasten to devour. Of course, only the poor deposit their dead in this cemetery; the

594

wealthy families convey the bodies to their native province in China and one often sees

595

camels loaded with huge Chinese coffins on their way to Khalgan.

596

597

Urga is the chief transit and distributing point for the whole country. Since 1922 the

598

coöperative movement in Mongolia has begun to spread. The Mongolian Central Coöperative

599

Society or "Moncentcoöp" at present has about 26 branches, 102 minor branches,

600

and 4 agencies in Moscow, Tientsin, Khalgan, and Khailar. The coöperative movement is

601

financially assisted by the Mongolian Government. During the year 1923-24 the Central

602

Coöperative imported various goods amounting to 531,000 Mexican dollars and exported to

603

the sum of 523,000 Mexican dollars. The last available State Report for the year 1927

604

shows an export of two million

605

*tukhriks*

606

(one

607

*tukhrik*

608

—one Mexican dollar, according to the ratio of 1926) and an import of 3,300,000

609

*tukhriks*

610

. Until now the imports have greatly exceeded exports. In order to make the country more

611

self-supporting, the Government of Mongolia has established a tannery at Altin-Bulak

612

with a capital of 420,000

613

*tukhriks*

614

. The tannery supplies the army and the population with leather products (saddlery,

615

boots, etc.), sheepskins, and winter felt boots. It is rumored that the Government will

616

establish a second tannery to increase the output. Besides the tannery the Government

617

was conducting negotiations to establish brick works, iron works, etc. To finance all

618

these undertakings, it was proposed to establish a Mongol State Bank. According to the

619

Report of 1927, the Government was also anxious to develop the natural resources of the

620

country and special laws are to be promulgated, regulating the granting of concessions

621

to Mongol citizens and foreigners.

622

623

Since the civil war of 1918-22, the agricultural population of the country, consisting

624

mostly of Russian and Chinese colonists, has almost totally disappeared. The quantity of

625

land cultivated by Mongols is so insignificant that the state has proposed to assist the

626

development of agriculture. A law was promulgated by which the Government pledged itself

627

to support, by grants of land and agricultural machinery, those who would like to become

628

farmers. Foreign concessioners have endeavored to open the agricultural possibilities of

629

the land, and a Danish concession is actually engaged in farming on a large scale.

630

631

Another grave concern of the Government of the Republic is the improvement of its

632

cattle. According to the census of 1926, outer Mongolia had 19,211,736 head of cattle.

633

From time immemorial the Mongols were a cattle and horse breeding nation. The Mongolian

634

animals, although sturdy by nature, have been badly neglected and in the course of

635

centuries have greatly deteriorated. Until recently very little has been done to improve

636

them, although this question is of vital importance to the country itself and all the

637

neighboring countries, which depend on Mongol herds. It remains to be seen by what

638

measures the Government of Mongolia intends to improve the breed. If properly conducted,

639

stock raising in Mongolia could be of the greatest importance and the country could

640

easily become one of the biggest cattle-producing regions of Asia.

641

642

Notwithstanding the centralizing tendency of the Government, some 1,697 foreign

643

commercial enterprises and 700 trading establishments still exist in the country. The

644

Chinese population of outer Mongolia is said to be about 100,000, mainly employees in

645

big trading concerns from Peking and Shan-hsi, artisans, laborers, and coolies.

646

647

Urga is connected by motor roads with the most important trading centers of Mongolia and

648

the border regions of Siberia and China. The chief routes are the Urga-Uliassutai-Kobdo

649

route with a length of 900 miles, the Kiakhta-Urga trade route running over a distance

650

of 180 miles, the Urga-Manchuria route, connecting the Mongol capital with the town of

651

Manchuria on the Chinese Eastern Railway, with a distance of 800 miles, and the

652

Urga-Khalgan trade route covering a distance of 800 miles. In 1918 a regular motor car

653

service was started between Khalgan and Urga by a company consisting of several

654

Europeans and the Chinese Commissioner of Khalgan. These are not motor roads in our

655

sense of the word; only the Kiakhta-Urga route can boast of such a road, which is in

656

progress of construction. The cars have to travel over steppe country and sand deserts,

657

ford rivers, and climb mountain passes.

658

659

So far there is no railway line within the frontiers of outer Mongolia but a branch

660

connecting Urga with Verkhne-Udinsk is frequently discussed. In times past great

661

railroad projects were planned to connect the capital of Hsin-ch'iang with Urga and

662

China proper, but neither the present economic state of the country nor the passenger

663

traffic and transit of goods necessitate at present such a tremendous undertaking.

664

665

After the sojourn of the Dalai Lama in 1904 in the capital of Mongolia it became

666

necessary, owing to the large donations received in silver and cattle, to establish a

667

Tibetan government office to look after the property of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. A

668

*tsi-pön*

669

(

670

*rtsi-dpon*

671

) with the official title of

672

*do-nyer*

673

(

674

*mgron-gñer*

675

) was appointed to supervise the work of different government agents throughout

676

Mongolia. His duties were to represent the Government and to look after the private

677

property of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, to report to the Tibetan Government on whatever

678

matter might interest the Government, to purchase goods for the Government, to supervise

679

Tibetan trade in Mongolia, and to issue passports to pilgrims traveling by way of

680

Tsaidam and Sining to Nag-chu and Lhasa.

681

682

In the time of the Bogdo Gegen, the Tibetan representative enjoyed full jurisdiction

683

over Tibetan nationals. Any Tibetan convicted of a crime was turned over by the Mongol

684

authorities to the

685

*do-nyer*

686

, who passed judgment according to the laws of his country. The punishment consisted

687

chiefly of flogging, but the convict was sometimes permitted to pay a fine that exempted

688

him from corporal punishment. Only seldom was a prisoner detained in the precincts of

689

the Tibetan "consulate," for this was a troublesome procedure and required a

690

body of men to be maintained as guards. The status of this representative closely

691

approached the position of our consuls.

692

693

During the time of the Bogdo Gegen, these Tibetan representatives kept a close watch

694

upon the Mongolian Pontiff, for it is a well-known fact that the church authorities of

695

Tibet were not very pleased with the doings of the Urga Hutukhtu and that on several

696

occasions the Dalai Lama had hinted to the Mongol Pontiff the desirability of his return

697

to Tibet.

698

699

The vast amount of private property belonging to His Holiness the Dalai Lama

700

necessitated the maintenance of a large controlling apparatus. The official

701

representative had a number of agents in his employ, who toured the country and

702

collected from the population the sums to the payment of which the local population had

703

pledged itself during the Dalai Lama's visit to Mongolia. Large sums of money were

704

deposited at the Ta-khu-re

705

*tsi-khang*

706

707

*barun-sang*

708

, the names under which the Tibetan treasury is known to Tibetans and Mongols. The money

709

was often used with great profit in usury and this unofficial occupation was stopped

710

only recently by the Mongolian Government.

711

712

It is a well-known fact that Tibetan trade is to a great extent conducted by the State,

713

which employs trade agents and issues trading permits to private traders who are allowed

714

to trade in the name of the Government and are officially designated by the name of

715

*shung-gi tshong-pa*

716

or government tradesmen.

717

718

Urga has always had a large colony of Tibetans. Tibetan lamas often occupy high

719

positions as doctors, being reputed for their learning. Some of them are Incarnate Lamas

720

of Mongol monasteries, others are spiritual advisors to high officials and thus exercise

721

a good deal of influence. Many of the lamas have abandoned monkhood, married Mongol

722

women, and carry on trade in the precincts of Urga. Such former lamas are usually called

723

*tra-lo*

724

, or "one who has returned his monastic vows," and form a caste by themselves.

725

The rest of the colony consists of traders who carry on business between Urga, Peking,

726

and Sining. Some of these men were former convicts who escaped from Tibet and now lead

727

an easy life in this hospitable land.

728

729

Wealthy Tibetan families used to maintain their own private trade agents, who traded in

730

the name of their masters. The well-known Tibetan statesman, the late Lönchen Shatra,

731

had such an agent in Urga. The man accumulated a considerable fortune and was considered

732

to be one of the richest merchants of the Tibetan colony. During the Mongol Civil War of

733

1919-22, he lost all his fortune and most of his goods. This disaster had a terrible

734

effect on him. He fell dangerously ill and lost his reason. I used to see him often in

735

the streets of Urga, attired in a fine silk coat with a large fur cap on his head,

736

roaming about the bazaars. When addressed, he repeated only one sentence, "Give me

737

my money back." Curiously enough he remembers the names of all the persons who had

738

harmed him. Later on I learned that he tried to commit suicide with a Tibetan sword and

739

that the Tibetan representative had to place guards in his tent.

740

741

In former times, before the Civil War of 1919-22, Tibet had an extensive trade with

742

Mongolia. Tibet largely exported holy images, incense made in Lhasa, block-prints of

743

sacred texts, a small quantity of Tibetan furs, ecclesiastical robes, and the prized

744

*puru*

745

, Tibetan cotton cloth of high quality. The Mongolian export consisted mostly of Chinese

746

silks, foreign wares, Russian leather, hides, furs, and Russian brocades. The present

747

Mongol Government established high custom duties on all articles connected with church

748

worship, and thus brought Mongol-Tibetan commerce practically to a standstill.

749

750

The routes connecting Tibet with Mongolia were for almost a whole decade unsafe for

751

trading caravans. During the season of 1926-27 only two Tibetan caravans reached the

752

Mongol capital and the amount of goods brought by them was so insignificant as to

753

justify the statement that Tibet-Mongol trade does not exist at present and that

754

important trade routes have lost their significance as arteries of central Asian

755

commerce.

756

757

The Chinese artisans are mostly

758

*mu-ch'ang*

759

or carpenters, who build most of the Urga houses, and

760

*t'ung-ch'ang*

761

or metal workers, who conduct most of the metal industry of the city. Shoemakers or

762

*gutulchi*

763

in Mongolian, who make the high Mongolian boots with repand points and sell the

764

ornamented boots of high quality imported from Khalgan, are an important class of

765

Chinese craftsmen in the Mongolian capital. Next to the shoemakers come the fur makers

766

767

*eldurchi*

768

who tan skins bought from the Mongols. Sheepskins tanned by Chinese are used as fur

769

lining for costly silk winter coats, worn by wealthy Mongols. The poorer classes prefer

770

to wear sheepskins of Mongol make, which are much heavier but are said to be warmer and

771

are indispensable on winter journeys in the Gobi. The Chinese tailors or

772

*tsai-feng*

773

work chiefly for the European and Chinese colonies of the city. The Mongols, unless they

774

prefer the Chinese fashions, favor the Mongol work, which is said to be more durable.

775

Another large class of artisans consists of image makers and silversmiths, who produce

776

bronze or clay images for monasteries and private chapels, and the silver offering cups

777

or silver ornaments. Their work is usually extremely crude and is far from being

778

artistic. Most of these artisans come from Peking or Dolon-nor, where there are large

779

workshops.

780

781

Besides these image makers, there are in Urga a number of shops usually called by their

782

semi-Tibetan, semi-Chinese name

783

*Ri-wo dze-nga-pu-tzu*

784

(Tib.

785

*Ri-bo rtse-lnga*

786

), which trade in images and other religious objects manufactured at Dolon-nor or at the

787

famous monastery of Wu-t'ai Shan. Here one can find gilded bronze images of

788

Sakyamuni, the Buddha, the principal

789

*yi-dams*

790

or titulary deities of the Yellow sect, the Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara, Mañjushri, and

791

Maitreya, the Tara, and sometimes Tsong-kha-pa, the founder of the Yellow Faith. Most of

792

the figures are of a very crude workmanship and present no interest whatsoever. The

793

images produced by the art workshop of the Wu-t'ai Shan Monastery are a little

794

better than those of Dolon-nor.

795

796

Painted images are only rarely found in these shops, for most of them are executed on

797

special orders by Mongol lama painters or

798

*dzurachin*

799

. The work of these lama artists is far inferior to that of the Kham or Derge artists.

800

The wealthy families of Urga possess some fine examples of Derge or Kham art. The colors

801

on painted banners executed by Mongol artists are crude and the design is generally very

802

poor.

803

804

Besides the sacred images, the

805

*Ri-wo dze-nga pu-tzu*

806

or shops have a large stock of objects used in temple ceremonies and of lama attires.

807

Here one can find offering lamps of different make and size,

808

*bum-pas*

809

or vases, peacock feathers,

810

*damaru*

811

or hand tambourines used in Tantric services, religious trumpets, the large trumpets or

812

*dung-chen*

813

, conchshells, incense sticks of Tibetan and Chinese makes (sticks coming from the Sera

814

Monastery of Lhasa are especially prized) and thick mattresses or

815

*olbok*

816

used as seats by lamas.

817

818

Some of the shops maintain large stocks of books printed at the Wu-t'ai Shan

819

Monastery and at Peking. The printing is usually good, as is also the paper. The Tibetan

820

blocks are in one respect better,—there are fewer misprints and mistakes in them. The

821

book stocks of the shops consist chiefly of prayer books and service manuals. Books on

822

church history or

823

*chö-jung*

824

, or treaties on higher metaphysics are only rarely found. The

825

*Lam-rim chen-mo*

826

of Je-rin-po-che Tsong-kha-pa is the only book of this class frequently seen. The

827

edition found in these shops is that of Wu-t'ai Shan. The Lhasa edition of the

828

*Lam-rim*

829

is of little use, for the wooden block prints became effaced and the modern prints are

830

hardly readable.

831

832

Another collection belonging to the same class of literature is the

833

*Chang-skya pandita'i sung-bum*

834

, or the collection of works by the Chang-skya Hutukhtu. It is printed in Peking and

835

contains five large volumes.

836

837

The

838

*rnam-thar*

839

literature is only poorly represented. In six shops, I found only one copy of the

840

*Ra lo-tsa-wa'i rnam-thar*

841

, a Tibetan print, which was left in the shop by a passing Tibetan lama.

842

843

The different

844

*cho-ga*

845

or worship manuals and

846

*ti-yig*

847

(

848

*'khrid-yig*

849

) or guides to the performance of various rites, are very largely represented and

850

contain the

851

*cho-ga*

852

of the most important

853

*yi-dams*

854

or titulary deities, such as Dem-chok, Sung-dü, Yamantaka, and Kye-dorje.

855

856

The Tantric literature is almost wholly absent, except for a few short works containing

857

the essence of the four principal systems of the Tantras.

858

859

The purely historical literature, consisting of different

860

*chö-jung*

861

862

*deb-ther*

863

, is only rarely found. It is a known fact that the large and rarer editions have to be

864

acquired from lamas, but it is always difficult to persuade the owner to part with the

865

books. The printing establishments of the Urga monasteries are not very active. During

866

the lifetime of the fourth incarnation of the Bogdo Gegen, block prints for seventy-two

867

volumes of a Tibetan

868

*Kānjur*

869

were made, but after the death of the Gegen, the work was discontinued and there is no

870

likelihood that it will be resumed.

871

872

Some good printing establishments are to be found in the Transbaikal Buriat monasteries,

873

in which some useful works on metaphysics are printed and some original lexicographical

874

works in the form of Mongol-Tibetan dictionaries are edited. These editions are only

875

seldom found at Urga. Before the closing of the Mongol-Chinese border, the bookselling

876

shops received fresh supplies of books from Peking. At that time one could find valuable

877

Chinese, Mongol, Tibetan, and Manchu dictionaries, and Mongol translations of Chinese

878

literary works, such as the description of Hsüan-tsang's travels across central Asia

879

to distant India in quest of knowledge and original Buddhist texts. Now this time is

880

gone, and with the high custom duty on the import of religious objects and texts the

881

number of such objects and books imported yearly has greatly diminished and rare

882

editions and costly bronzes have almost completely disappeared from the market.

883

884

During my travels through central Asia and the Buddhist lands of Mongolia and Tibet, I

885

observed the interesting fact that the lamas often prefer European editions of Buddhist

886

texts. They say that the Tibetan texts printed in Calcutta by the Government Press or

887

the texts published at Petrograd are easier to handle and to carry about than the bulky

888

and sometimes badly printed xylographs of their own countries. With many Mongol and

889

Tibetan lamas I found volumes of the

890

*Bibliotheca Buddhica*

891

published by the Russian Academy of Sciences—a striking example of how European

892

scholarship and western methods of printing penetrate and are appreciated by the learned

893

men of Tibet and Mongolia.

894

895

There is a Government Press at Urga which prints the daily newspaper in Mongolian and

896

recently began the editing of a number of textbooks for the Mongolian high schools. This

897

work of supplying the high schools with up-to-date textbooks on geography, history, and

898

natural sciences, owes much to the many-sided activity of Dr. T. Z. Jamtsarano, the

899

learned secretary of the Mongol Scientific Committee, and Mr. Batu Khan, the former

900

Minister of Education in the Mongolian Government. The textbooks already issued are well

901

executed and well printed, considering the limited resources of the press.

902

903

There is a growing demand for books in Mongolia which would tell the youth of Mongolia

904

something about the outer world, and the place occupied in it by their own mother

905

country. It is a pleasure to note this awakening quest for knowledge among a people

906

which until recently only dreamed of the great deeds of the past. A nation that will

907

combine the daring of her horsemen with a true and sincere search for the treasures of

908

knowledge has a future before her.

909

910

During the recent years Mongolia has endeavored to extend education into the provinces

911

and create provincial schools for boys and girls. The last published Report of 1927 says

912

that there are at present about a hundred primary schools in which 2,904 children

913

receive education. The vast expanses of Mongolia, the inadequate lines of communication,

914

and the scarcity of population, make this extremely difficult, and few of the schools

915

are well attended and well supplied with competent teachers.

916

917

The problem of teachers is a very perplexing one, for few of the Mongols are able to do

918

well as such and few Europeans are able to acquire a good knowledge of the colloquial

919

language and of local conditions, to enable them to perform their task successfully.

920

Still the country is trying hard and the interest evinced in things American and

921

European is sincere and will undoubtedly bear fruit. A few years ago it was hard to make

922

a nomad boy sit at a school desk and learn geography or natural sciences. The pupils

923

used to find the lessons boring and again and again ran away into the vastness of their

924

native steppes. One should not represent the young Mongols as being unruly and

925

undisciplined. The nomads have a very strong instinct for order and readily obey their

926

superiors. When on good terms with their superiors they make attentive pupils, and when

927

in the ranks of the army, good soldiers. The reason for their deserting the schools was

928

that the life there was not made attractive and failed to catch their imagination.

929

930

The high educational institution of the country is represented by the

931

*Ayuting-surgal*

932

, which is called the Mongol National University and turns out teachers and future

933

government officials. Its program is far from being extensive and at best corresponds to

934

a high school with the first two years of college. A number of Mongol youths have been

935

sent to Germany, Japan, and Russia to study engineering, agriculture, and military

936

science. Some of them have already returned and are busily engaged in reconstructing

937

Mongolian life on more modern lines. Mongolia is now passing through a transitory state.

938

The nomads of the steppe flock to the town, and large settlements of felt tents or

939

*yurtas*

940

on the outskirts of a permanent town give evidence of the fact that administrative and

941

trading centers are becoming more and more the focus points of the country's

942

activities. In a varying degree Mongolia is passing through the same social phase that

943

made thousands of people in America and Europe move to the cities and forsake parental

944

hearths.

945

946

The highest scientific institution of the land is the Mongol Scientific Committee. Its

947

chief duty is to collect and record all scientific information about Mongolia, be it

948

concerning an old runic monument or about the mineral wealth of the country. The

949

committee gives the necessary permits to foreign scientific expeditions and is engaged

950

in surveying and exploring the vast land of Mongolia. In time, the committee will

951

undoubtedly possess valuable collections and scientific data. Already a nucleus for a

952

national museum is being formed and the rich private collections of the late Bogdo

953

Gegen, confiscated by the state, form a considerable part of it. Under the able

954

leadership of Dr. T. Z. Jamtsarano, a noted scholar in the field of Mongol literature

955

and folklore, the committee is rapidly collecting material to serve for a comprehensive

956

study of Mongolia and its people.

957

958

The two greatest treasures of the committee's museum and library are the wonderful

959

finds made by General P. K. Kozlov in the Noin ula Mountains and a complete set of a

960

Mongolian printed

961

*Tānjür*

962

. For a long time scholars have doubted the existence of a

963

*Tānjür*

964

printed in Mongolian. The Chinese sources tell us that the great Emperor Ch'ien-long

965

ordered a committee of interpreters and scholars to translate the 225 volumes of the

966

*Tānjür*

967

into Mongolian and prepare block prints for its printing. According to the Chinese

968

sources, this tremendous work was begun about October, 1740, and was ready by December,

969

1741—a truly wonderful achievement, considering the difficulties of translating from

970

Tibetan into Mongolian. The complete copy of the

971

*Tānjür*

972

, now in the possession of the Scientific Committee, was found in the territory of the

973

Prince Nga-wang, in the vicinity of Khalgan in southeastern Mongolia.

974

975

Besides the two great collections of Buddhist scriptures and commentaries and the

976

well-furnished library of Mongol works, both manuscript and printed, containing editions

977

produced in all the principal presses of Lamaist Asia, the library has good collections

978

of Tibetan exegetic literature. The library has most of the works edited by the great

979

printing establishments of Labrang, Kumbum, and Derge. Books printed at Lhasa and

980

Shigatse are also well represented and this part of the collection is continuously

981

growing. The library possesses valuable editions of Chinese literary works translated

982

into Mongolian and richly illustrated. The Chinese collection of the library is less

983

extensive and will have to be increased.

984

985

At the time of our stay in Urga, the learned keeper of the Tibetan department of the

986

library, Lama Shakju, was busily engaged in preparing an exhaustive dictionary of the

987

Mongol language. He possesses a rare knowledge of his mother tongue and is well versed

988

in Tibetan and in Buddhism, and his work should prove of the greatest value and

989

assistance to all scholars interested in things Mongolian.

990

991

Urga presents quite unique opportunities for a student of Tibetan literature, for many

992

of its monasteries and even private individuals possess good collections of Tibetan

993

works, printed mostly in Derge or Kham, and composed with great care and true

994

understanding. More accessible than Tibet, the capital of Mongolia and its learned men

995

are always ready to assist European savants in their quest. It was always a great

996

pleasure and an intellectual treat to me to discuss scientific problems with Dr.

997

Jamtsarano, for with his deep knowledge he possesses a singular gift of unfolding the

998

ancient sacred lore of Mongolia and Tibet.

999

1000

The Scientific Committee has quite recently carried out extensive explorations in outer

1001

Mongolia and has surveyed a number of ancient sites. It has also continued the

1002

excavations of the tumuli or funeral mounds in the Noin ula Mountains, where valuable

1003

finds were made, that threw fresh light on the culture revealed and facilitated the

1004

dating of the discoveries of General P. K. Kozlov. The Noin ula finds are closely

1005

related to the antiquities of the Transbaikal Province, brought to light by the Russian

1006

archaeologist Dr. Talko-Grincevich. The newly found antiquities form the easternmost end

1007

of a vast belt of nomad culture which passed through Minusinsk, Altai (Kotanda), Issik

1008

köl, and the Aralo-Caspian steppes. The groups of tumuli, containing the royal tombs of

1009

a nomad people, are situated in the forest-clad valleys of Gujirte, Sudzukte, and

1010

Tsurumte in the Noin ula Mountains, north of Urga. Most of the tumuli have been damaged

1011

by treasure seekers and many of the things have been stolen. As to whom the tombs

1012

belonged, whether to Hiung-nu chiefs or to some other paleo-Asiatic tribes, it is

1013

difficult to express an opinion at present.

1014

1015

An outstanding feature of the Kozlov discoveries is the presence of several fine pieces

1016

of textile fabric in Scytho-Siberian style, the first textiles of their kind discovered.

1017

The art is of a very composite nature, in which Greek, Iranian, native Scytho-Siberian,

1018

and Chinese elements are clearly discernible. Nomad central Asia, with its constant

1019

great tribal movements, had an extensive intercourse with different cultural provinces.

1020

The Kozlov textiles bear striking resemblance to the silks excavated by Sir Aurel Stein

1021

at Lou-lan in the Tarim Basin, these last being fairly well dated as belonging to the

1022

first century B.C. Some of the newly discovered textile fragments exhibit certain

1023

analogies to the art of Mediterranean countries. On one of them, we find according to

1024

Mr. Borovka, is the representation of the Mesopotamian sacred tree, inserted between the

1025

principal representations of fighting animals. Others exhibit a style recalling the

1026

Chinese art of the Ch'ou or Han periods. On several fragments the motive is purely

1027

Scytho-Siberian, but the execution shows strongly Chinese influences.

1028

1029

It seems very probable that Chinese artists furnished to the nomads objects in their

1030

national style, as was done by Greek artists for the Scythian population of South Russia

1031

and as is still practiced by Chinese firms trading in Tibet and Mongolia.

1032

Notwithstanding the composite nature of the nomad art, we can affirm that there existed

1033

a common source from which different artistic provinces of central Asia borrowed their

1034

inspiration. Modern researches tend to show that this center of nomad culture lay

1035

somewhere in central Asia. In a subsequent chapter, I shall discuss the existence of an

1036

animal style in Tibet and particularly among the nomad tribes of the northeast and north

1037

of Tibet.

1038

1039

The chief interest in Urga lies in its monasteries and other religious edifices. They

1040

dominate the city and their glittering gilded roofs add much to its outward appearance.

1041

The Ikhe-küren is its oldest religious establishment. We have already seen that this was

1042

the center round which grew the present city of Urga, and for many decades the official

1043

residence of the Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu. It is at present divided into twenty-nine

1044

*aimaks*

1045

or monastic colleges. Besides these colleges there are at least seven temples

1046

consecrated to certain branches of the study of worship. One of the most important is

1047

the

1048

*tshok-chin*

1049

(Tib.

1050

*tshogs-chen*

1051

) or the assembly hall of the monastic congregation. According to ecclesiastical

1052

tradition, the building of the assembly hall was started by Ündür-Gegen, the first and

1053

most famous Gegen of Urga. It is a square wooden building, many times enlarged during

1054

its history to suit the growing congregation of monks. The roof of the structure is

1055

crowned by a gilded

1056

*gañjira*

1057

in the form of a

1058

*bum-pa*

1059

or vase. On the four corners of the roof stand the black and white religious banners or

1060

*jyal-tsen*

1061

(Tib.

1062

*rgyal-mtshan*

1063

). These banners have a long history. They are usually found on temple roofs in Mongolia

1064

and Tibet and date back to a remote nomadic past.

1065

1066

Inside the cathedral, at its northern wall, stands the state throne of the Hutukhtu, and

1067

on both sides of the throne are large glass cases with the holy images—among which are

1068

prominent the image of Sakyamuni, the last human Buddha, Tsong-kha-pa, the great

1069

reformer of the fourteenth century with his two principal disciples, Khe-dup-je (Tib.

1070

mKhas-grub-rje) and Jye-tshap-je (Tib. rGyal-tshab-rje), and the image of Ündür-Gegen.

1071

Most of these images are made of gilded clay and are covered by costly silk garments.

1072

Above the glass cases hang numerous religious banners or

1073

*thang-kas*

1074

. Most of the paintings are the work of Mongol artists or

1075

*dzurachin*

1076

and are far inferior in quality and design to the paintings belonging to the eastern

1077

Tibetan school.

1078

1079

The roof of the cathedral is supported by 108 columns, an auspicious number, being the

1080

number of volumes in the

1081

*Kānjür*

1082

. Between the columns are laid out low mattresses or

1083

*shap-den*

1084

(Tib.

1085

*shabs-ldan*

1086

) for the use of lamas during the services.

1087

1088

The temple has a very large treasury or

1089

*sang*

1090

, in which are preserved many religious objects dating back to the time of Ündür-Gegen.

1091

Outside the temple stands a high wooden platform, from which lamas are summoned by

1092

trumpets, called

1093

*bura-yin shata*

1094

, or the "platform of the trumpet."

1095

1096

There are only four great assemblies of the clergy, for which use the assembly hall was

1097

primarily built: 1, The Assembly of the Clergy on the New Year; 2, The festival of

1098

Chönkor duchin; 3, The great Maidari festival in the third and fourth months; 4, The

1099

Presentation of Offerings to the Bogdo Gegen (

1100

*dansik*

1101

). With the abolishment of future incarnations of the Hutukhtu, this assembly has been

1102

discontinued.

1103

1104

All these great assemblies of the clergy are impressive functions, during which imposing

1105

scenes are witnessed. First one sees purple and yellow-clad lamas in high hats and

1106

flowing monastic robes, ascending the

1107

*bura-yin shata*

1108

or the "platform of the trumpet" and summoning the monks with the deep

1109

drawling sounds of their long trumpets or

1110

*dung-chen*

1111

. The narrow lanes and streets of the monastic city suddenly fill with purple-clad

1112

lamas; imposing gray-haired

1113

*geshe*

1114

and

1115

*gabju*

1116

(Tib.

1117

*bka-bcu*

1118

) or fully-pledged priests who observe the ten commandments, move in procession to the

1119

assembly hall. Young

1120

*getsul*

1121

or novices and probationers throng the entrance to the hall. The presiding lamas take up

1122

their seats to the left and right, in front of the throne of the Bogdo Gegen, which is

1123

usually covered with the red mantle and the ceremonial hat of the Pontiff. The

1124

*Tshok-chin Gebkö*

1125

or the Provost Marshal of the assembly hall takes his seat at the entrance of the hall.

1126

The rest of the clergy sit down on the low mattresses spread in rows parallel to the

1127

northern wall. At the ends of the rows close to the entrance of the hall, sit the lama

1128

musicians with long trumpets, hautboys, and tambours. The service starts, and the low

1129

voices intone a chant, occasionally interrupted by the deep sounds of the trumpets and

1130

the sharp ringing tones of the hautboys. Tambours rhythmically sounded, join in the

1131

service, and sometimes the harrowing sounds of cymbals rise in the semidarkness of the

1132

hall. The deep low voices of the elder monks are accompanied by the shrill high voices

1133

of the boy novices, who rhythmically shake their heads and bodies while chanting their

1134

prayers. It is quite unlike the chants in Tibetan monasteries, but is similar to that of

1135

the Tsaidam Mongols. This temple music, a remnant of an ancient past, going back to

1136

shamanistic antiquity, is not without a peculiar charm of its own, and never fails to

1137

make a deep impression on a visitor.

1138

1139

The next important temple in the

1140

*küren*

1141

is the Da-ching galba-yinsümä, founded in 1739 during the reign of the Emperor

1142

Ch'ien long. The temple was destroyed by fire in 1892, but was subsequently rebuilt.

1143

Formerly its compound was used by the Bogdo Gegen, whose

1144

*yurtas*

1145

were pitched in it. Tibetan lamas, belonging to the immediate following of the Gegen,

1146

officiated in the temple. The last Bogdo Gegen spent most of his time in his summer

1147

palace on the banks of the Tola River. With his death, the temple lost its importance.

1148

The temple itself is built in Chinese style and its gilded roof forms one of the

1149

attractions in the

1150

*küren*

1151

, but its interior is unimportant.

1152

1153

To the south of the temple compound lies a large open square on which the late Bogdo

1154

Gegen used to receive the

1155

*mandal*

1156

or "offering" and give blessing to the faithful. At present the middle of the

1157

large square is occupied by several triumphal arches in Chinese style, erected in 1883

1158

in honor of the Eighth Incarnation of Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu. A Chinese inscription and

1159

a Mongol translation of it tell of the event.

1160

1161

The Barun Örgö or the temple consecrated to Abatai Khan, the reputed introducer of

1162

Lamaistic Buddhism into Mongolia, was once a place of importance, but since the

1163

transportation of many images to the summer palace of the Bogdo Gegen its importance has

1164

rapidly diminished.

1165

1166

The Jude-yin-sümä, the temple consecrated to Tantric worship (Tib.

1167

*rgyud*

1168

), is another important institution in the

1169

*küren*

1170

. Here are performed the mystic services according to the four principal systems of

1171

Tantras.

1172

1173

The Emchi-yin-sümä or the Temple of Doctors is reserved for lamas studying medicine, and

1174

regular courses in medical science are delivered there. Many of the professors are

1175

graduates of the famous school of medicine in the Chak-po ri in Lhasa. An affiliated

1176

religious institution is the great Manla-yin-sümä, or the temple in honor of the Healing

1177

Buddha (Tib.

1178

*sMan-bla*

1179

). This form of Buddha is extremely popular among the Buddhists in Mongolia and Tibet.

1180

Images of the Buddha, both bronzes and painted scrolls, are very numerous in monasteries

1181

and private chapels.

1182

1183

The Tsürkha-yin-sümä, or the Temple of Astrology, is an important learned institution in

1184

the Mongol capital. It was built in 1798 A.D. during the lifetime of the Fourth

1185

Incarnation of Je-tsün tam-pa Hutukhtu. It is held in great sanctity and visitors are

1186

not generally allowed to enter it, a special permission being required in order to see

1187

the building and the images inside it.

1188

1189

A special staff of lamas officiates in the temple and a special preparation is required

1190

of those who intend to enter the temple. Each aspirant has to pass several examinations

1191

in Lamaist astronomy and allied subjects in order to qualify as a student or member of

1192

the Temple of Astrology. In the temple are found paintings or painted scrolls

1193

representing the

1194

*mandala*

1195

or the mystic sphere of influence of the Kalacakra system or the Wheel of Time. A

1196

thorough knowledge of

1197

*kar-tsi*

1198

or astronomy is essential for a correct understanding of the doctrine. This mystic

1199

doctrine was introduced into Tibet by the great Dipankara Shri-jñana or Atisha, a famous

1200

professor from the Indian convent of Vikramashila, in the eleventh century A.D. The

1201

doctrine which probably appeared in India about the end of the tenth century A.D.

1202

originated in the Realm of Shambhala, a region situated north of Tibet proper.

1203

1204

The center of the Kalacakra doctrine was the Tashi-lhun-po Monastery. One of the

1205

monastic colleges of Tashi-lhun-po was consecrated to the study of Kalacakra and is

1206

known under the name of Dün-khor-gyi da-tshang (Tib. Dus-'khor-gyi gra-tshang) or

1207

College of Kalacakra. This college was for a long time the chief seat of learning, where

1208

specially approved pupils could consecrate their time to the study of the abstruse

1209

treatises on the doctrine. Books on the Kalacakra doctrine are given only to trustworthy

1210

pupils, and an outsider can obtain books on it only after having obtained a special

1211

permission to do so from the Dalai Lama or the clerical authorities of Tibet. Such books

1212

are seldom printed and the block prints are preserved at big monastic presses. When a

1213

person has received the necessary permission, the book is printed on paper furnished by

1214

the applicant, no fee being taken for printing.

1215

1216

The Grand Lama of Tashi-lhun-po was in his Second Incarnation Rig-den jam-pe dak-pa

1217

(Tib. Rigs-ldan 'jam-dpal grags-pa) one of the rulers of Shambhala, who are said to

1218

govern the realm for one hundred years. In his future incarnation, His Holiness the

1219

Tashi Lama will be reborn as Rigden Jye-po, the future ruler of Shambhala, whose destiny

1220

it is to conquer the followers of evil, and establish the reign of Maitreya, the future

1221

Buddha. The doctrine of Shambhala is the hidden doctrine of Tibet and Mongolia, and His

1222

Holiness the Tashi Lama is regarded as the chief expounder of the doctrine in this

1223

world.

1224

1225

Since the departure of the present Tashi Lama in 1923, the doctrine received a powerful

1226

new impulse, and numerous Kalacakra colleges were established by His Holiness himself in

1227

inner Mongolia and Buddhist China. Even in distant Buriatia is to be observed the same

1228

movement. Most of the monasteries establish special Kalacakra colleges with a special

1229

staff of lamas to officiate in them. Shambhala is not only considered to be the abode of

1230

hidden Buddhist learning, it is the guiding of a lotus flower which supports the book

1231

and sword—symbols of Mañjushri, the Prince of Knowledge. In some ancient paintings, the

1232

King is seen attired in a breastplate armor, and wears the pointed helmet. In more

1233

modern images, he is seen attired in flowing robes ornamented with rich golden design.

1234

At the foot of his throne sit his parents designated under the name of Rig-den Jye-po

1235

'i yab-yum, or, sometimes, instead of them Rig-den pema karpo, the first expounder

1236

of Kalacakra doctrine in India, and the Bodhisattva Padmapani.

1237

1238

In the lower corner we sometimes see represented Atisha Shrijñana, the introducer of

1239

Kalacakra into Tibet.

1240

1241

On some paintings beneath the throne of the King of Shambhala is depicted the coming war

1242

of Shambhala against the Lalo'i jye-po, the King of the Evil Ones. In it we see the

1243

King of Shambhala mounted on a raven black charger defeating the King of the La-los. The

1244

details are interesting for they show us all the accouterment of ancient Tibetan

1245

warriors—breastplate armor, helmets with small flags, heavy swords, matchlocks, bow and

1246

arrows, and even bamboo guns placed on strange carriages.

1247

1248

Other images represent the

1249

*mandala*

1250

of Shambhala. The King of Shambhala is represented seated in front of one of his palace

1251

towers. The palace, a large structure in Sino-Tibetan style, is surrounded by a circle

1252

of high snowy mountains, for it is said in the

1253

*Shambhala lam-yig*

1254

or "Itinerary of Shambhala" that the Realm of Shambhala is situated in a

1255

mountain region sheltered on every side by high snowy ranges.

1256

1257

In the upper corner of such paintings we see the representation of Pal-den ye-she, the

1258

third Tashi Lama, holding the monastic bowl and the one-headed form of the

1259

*yi-dam*

1260

of Kalacakra (Tib.

1261

*dPal-dus-kyi 'khor-lo yab-yum*

1262

). Very often the

1263

*yi-dam*

1264

is represented with four heads and twelve or twenty-four arms. The color of his body is

1265

invariably blue; his

1266

*shakti*

1267

1268

*yum*

1269

is dark orange-yellow or sometimes red. The

1270

*yi-dam*

1271

of Kalacakra is frequently represented as a bodhisattva. When represented as such he

1272

wears the bodhisattva attire and holds in his folded hands the Wheel of Law or

1273

*Dharmacakra*

1274

. In this form the color of his body is yellow ochre. The

1275

*yi-dam*

1276

of Kalacakra has been frequently misrepresented in western literature on the subject as

1277

a god Kalacakra. In reality the

1278

*yi-dam*

1279

of Kalacakra symbolizes the mystic force of the system and is never considered to be a

1280

divine being.

1281

1282

In the Temple of Astrology in Urga, the lama students are first trained in astronomy and

1283

astrology and then initiated into the secrets of Kalacakra. There exists a prescribed

1284

order of subjects in which the study of Kalacakra has to be taken up; but as it

1285

necessitates a lengthy description of allied Tantric systems, it must be omitted here.

1286

1287

The best temple in the

1288

*küren*

1289

is dedicated to Maitreya. The huge statue of the coming Buddha was executed by Chinese

1290

craftsmen in Dolon-nor. The first temple to accommodate the statue was built in the

1291

lifetime of the Fifth Incarnation of the Bogdo Gegen, but it soon fell down and

1292

representatives were sent to the Tashi Lama in Tibet to inquire the reason of such a

1293

calamity. The Tashi Lama gave the explanation that the image of the future Buddha

1294

preferred a temple of Tibetan architecture, and it is said that he himself contributed a

1295

general plan for the new temple.

1296

1297

The present temple was built in the lifetime of the Seventh Incarnation of Je-tsün

1298

tam-pa Hutukhtu. It is a square wooden building with a dome in the middle of the roof,

1299

crowned with a

1300

*gañjira*

1301

, and the traditional banners or

1302

*jyal-tsen*

1303

on the corners. The colossal image of Maitreya, some fifty feet high, stands in the

1304

middle of the temple. Behind the figure at the northern wall stand five huge figures of

1305

attending bodhisattvas. The other walls are covered with glass cases containing brass

1306

images of the thousand

1307

*Tathagatas*

1308

1309

1310

In front of the image of Maitreya stands an altar table with the usual offering lamps,

1311

the eight happy symbols, and large incense pots. In the middle of the altar is placed a

1312

framed representation of the

1313

*Samsara-cakra*

1314

or the Wheel of Life. Massive wooden columns painted in bright colors support a gallery

1315

on which are placed shelves or

1316

*kün-ra*

1317

, containing two complete sets of the

1318

*Kānjür*

1319

and

1320

*Tānjür*

1321

. Outside the temple stand numerous prayer wheels, and pilgrims usually walk around the

1322

temple and put the wheels into motion.

1323

1324

The rest of the

1325

*küren*

1326

represents a collection of inclosed compounds surrounded by wooden palisades, in which

1327

stand the small wooden hovels or felt tents of the monks. It is a city by itself,

1328

standing apart from the rush and dust of modern Ulan Bator. On the southern side of the

1329

*küren*

1330

is situated a large open square on which stands an open wooden platform, where religious

1331

dances are performed by the monks. I witnessed here the Black-Hat dance performed during

1332

the New Year festivities. The square was thronged by an eager and ever increasing crowd

1333

of spectators. Lamas and laymen in bright yellow, blue, and purple silk coats, Chinese

1334

traders in somber black attire, Europeans, Mongol soldiers in khaki overcoats and

1335

fur-lined helmets, all stood and watched some twenty lamas performing the dance. They

1336

all were dressed in black coats with green embroidered silk sleeves, over which they

1337

wore

1338

*rü-jyen*

1339

(Tib.

1340

*rus-rgyan*

1341

) or bone ornaments, and the peculiar black hats which gave the name to the dance.

1342

1343

The story of the origin of the dance is well known. King Lang-darma of Tibet, who ruled

1344

the country in the ninth century A.D., was a faithful follower and supporter of the

1345

ancient Bön faith. He did everything possible to suppress the doctrine of Buddha, closed

1346

monasteries and massacred monks. A famous Buddhist ascetic, Pal-dorje, decided to free

1347

the country from the oppressing monarch and kill him. He accordingly rode to Lhasa on a

1348

shaggy white pony, which he painted black with coal, himself dressed as a Bön magician.

1349

He carried a bow and arrow in his large sleeves. He went so attired into the presence of

1350

the king and started to perform a magic dance. The king was intensely interested and

1351

drew nearer to the dancing lama, who took advantage of this and shot a poisoned arrow

1352

into him. The king fell mortally wounded and soon expired. The lama avenger fled toward

1353

his horse and disappeared from the city. While crossing a river, the coal with which his

1354

pony was painted was washed away and he continued his journey on a white horse. Warriors

1355

were mustered to pursue the murderer, who was said to have come into the city riding a

1356

black pony.

1357

1358

They rushed in pursuit and overtook Pal-dorje on the way, but instead of a Bön magician

1359

riding a black horse, they only found a poor Buddhist lama riding a shaggy white horse.

1360

They naturally did not suspect him to be the murderer and hastened farther on, searching

1361

the countryside for the vanished murderer. So was Buddhism avenged and the event is

1362

commemorated by the Black-Hat dance annually performed throughout Tibet and Mongolia

1363

during the New Year celebration.

1364

1365

On the northwest of Urga stands the great monastery of Ganden, the seat of higher

1366

Buddhist learning. When entering Urga by the Kiakhta route, one sees this huge square

1367

block of small wooden hovels and palisades, over which towers the great temple or

1368

*lha-khang*

1369

of Aryabalo or Avalokitesvara. Outside the monastery on its northern and eastern

1370

extremities stand twenty-eight white

1371

*stupas*

1372

which protect the approaches to the monastery. Narrow lanes on either side of which rise

1373

gray wooden palisades, sheltering the monk's quarters, lead to the center of the

1374

monastery where is situated the great temple of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. It is a

1375

huge building in the Sino-Mongolian style, with high terraces that rise above the main

1376

building. The Chinese roof of the temple with its projecting corners is crowned by a

1377

gilded

1378

*gañjira*

1379

in the form of a vase or

1380

*bum-pa*

1381

. The temple was begun in the lifetime of the eighth Bogdo Gegen and was completed about

1382

the end of 1913 after the Mongol Revolution.

1383

1384

A richly carved entrance of painted wooden columns leads to the temple. Two rows of

1385

windows in Tibetan style, the window frames being narrower at the top and somewhat

1386

broader at the base, afford sufficient light in the vast sanctuary, in the center of

1387

which stands the huge brass image of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Merciful Lord.

1388

Along the walls range glass cases with thousands of brass Buddhas, made in Warsaw. In

1389

the right corner of the temple are two thrones covered by the red ceremonial mantles, on

1390

which are set framed photographs of the late Bogdo Gegen and his consort the Dara-Eke.

1391

1392

Outside the temple of Avalokitesvara are situated the sepulchers of the Bogdo Gegens of

1393

Urga. The fifth, the seventh, and the last Bogdo Gegen are entombed here. The Sixth

1394

Incarnation has been buried in the monastery of Dam-ba Dorje (Tibetan: Dam-pa Do-rje).

1395

To the east of the temple of Avalokitesvara is situated the assembly hall or

1396

*tshok-chin*

1397

—a square wooden building, somewhat like a huge square tent. Services are held daily and

1398

when one passes near the hall one usually hears the chants of the monks rising in the

1399

frosty air.

1400

1401

The present monastery of Ganden was founded in 1809 in the lifetime of the Fourth

1402

Incarnation of Je-tsün tam-pa Taranatha. Its chief importance lies in the fact, that in

1403

it are situated the colleges for the study of

1404

*tshan-nyid*

1405

1406

*abhidharma*

1407

, Buddhist metaphysics, and that here live the most learned monks of Urga.

1408

1409

During my stay in Urga, I often went to visit the monastery and discuss with lamas the

1410

intricate problems of the Buddhist viewpoint on the outside world,—a kind of projection

1411

of one's inner self. Such learned lamas, holders of the high scholarly degrees in

1412

divinity of

1413

*rap-cham-pa*

1414

(Tibetan:

1415

*rab-'byams-pa*

1416

) and

1417

*lha-ram-pa*

1418

, usually live with their disciples, who attend to their bodily needs, in Mongol felt

1419

tents pitched inside the courtyards of the monastery. The felt tent of a lama is usually

1420

much cleaner and sometimes even better furnished than that of a layman of equal means.

1421

One day we paid a visit to a learned

1422

*lha-ram-pa*

1423

or doctor of divinity, well known in Urga for his great knowledge and general acumen. We

1424

were anxious to see him, for we had heard that he had a deep and sincere interest in

1425

western science and a very sane point of view on the future of the Buddhist doctrine.

1426

1427

On arriving in Ganden, we were ushered into a narrow lane, leading to a small

1428

red-painted door with the Mongol number on it. Behind the door lay a small courtyard in

1429

which two Mongol tents were pitched: The white tent of the

1430

*lha-ram-pa*

1431

and an ordinary Mongol tent of gray felt for his attendants and disciples. A young lama

1432

lifted up the heavy carpet that serves as door in most of the

1433

*yurtas*

1434

, when the wooden door is left open. The

1435

*lha-ram-pa*

1436

, a man of sixty, was sitting on a low mattress in front of a low table covered with

1437

books and papers. He rose from his seat, greeted us, and offered us a seat on a low

1438

couch which served him as a bed.

1439

1440

The furnishing of his tent was simple but clean and cozy. A large iron stove in the

1441

center gave plenty of warmth. An altar with a glass case containing several small images

1442

and photos of great lamas, stood at the northern wall of the tent. Near to the altar

1443

stood a table and a large wooden case containing the lama's library. He himself was

1444

engaged in translating into Tibetan a Russian textbook on algebra for the use of the

1445

monastery lamas. He told us that Buddhism should be renovated in the light of modern

1446

science. It was necessary to improve the general education of the lamas. According to

1447

him, in times past one met learned lamas, who knew Sanskrit and had a thorough knowledge

1448

of the

1449

*tshan-nyid*

1450

literature of Buddhism. Now such men are rare, and most of the lamas content themselves

1451

with learning by heart a few proscribed prayer books. The

1452

*lha-ram-pa*

1453

was well aware of the fact that unless the church would improve the education of the

1454

lamas, the influence of religion would rapidly wane. A question that greatly agitated

1455

the clerical masses was that of the

1456

*khuvaraks*

1457

or novices. According to the old rule, boys of seven were given away by their parents to

1458

a monastery to become lamas. A family that had several sons would always give one of

1459

them away. Educated from early boyhood in the precepts and traditions of the Lamaist

1460

order, the boys grew into staunch supporters of the church. The new progressive

1461

government of Mongolia recently promulgated a law that only boys of eighteen could enter

1462

the monastery and that they should do so entirely of their own accord. This was a heavy

1463

blow to the church, which suddenly lost its right of recruiting novices among the

1464

population. Our informer was, however, of the opinion that the importance lay in quality

1465

and not in quantity: let there be fewer lamas, but real ones, learned in the precepts of

1466

their religion.

1467

1468

The lamas, being the only intellectual class, had to evolve with the time, participate

1469

in the life of the nation, and help in the upbuilding of their country. The views of the

1470

learned

1471

*lha-ram-pa*

1472

, I must add, are shared by a number of monks throughout Mongolia and even Tibet.

1473

1474

Another picturesque building of Urga is the Chö-jin Lama-yin-sümä, situated in the town

1475

of Urga. It was built in 1910 to serve as residence to the brother of the Bogdo Gegen,

1476

who was one of the foremost state oracles of Mongolia.

1477

1478

Such are the principal monasteries and temples of Ulan Bator or Urga. Besides them there

1479

exist in the city several resthouses or branch monasteries, belonging to big provincial

1480

monastic establishments, and small chapels mostly situated in felt tents. Two or three

1481

lamas usually officiate in such chapels and look after the property. The Tibetan colony

1482

has also a kind of assembly hall of its own for Tibetan monks. This establishment is

1483

also in felt tents; and on the eighth, fifteenth, and thirtieth of each month services

1484

are held, in which all the clerical members of the colony take part. Several great

1485

Tibetan lamas live constantly in Urga. Some of them belonged to the staff of the late

1486

Bogdo Gegen and others fled from Tibet as a result of the recent persecutions of the

1487

followers of the Tashi Lama.

1488

8e8e06	Otterwiki Robot	2026-03-22 19:05:48
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1489

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1490

The most famous monastery in the immediate neighborhood of the Mongol capital is the

1491

Mañjushri Khit or the monastic retreat of Mañjushri. It is situated on the southern

1492

slopes of the sacred Bogdo ula and overlooks the Gobi expanse, that stretches to the

1493

south of the massive mountain. This monastery is built entirely in Tibetan style and is

1494

reputed for the strict discipline of its monks. The

1495

*Mañjushri Khit-in shiretu*

1496

or Abbot of the Mañjushri Khit is reputed for his learning and wields a considerable

1497

amount of influence both in secular and clerical circles of Urga.

1498

1499

One of the most important events in the religious life of the capital is the Maidari

1500

procession, which takes place in the third or fourth month of the Mongol year. It is a

1501

very imposing parade, which encircles the city; and huge crowds watch the passing of the

1502

image of the coming Buddha. Its approach is heralded by the concentrated look of the

1503

crowd and the dim and ever rising sound of trumpets and cymbals and many voices chanting

1504

prayers. The air is dusty, and in the yellowish cloud move huge palanquins and state

1505

umbrellas carried over the holy images, some of which are borne by monks, others by

1506

richly caparisoned horses. The long trumpets send out their deep sonorous notes and are

1507

accompanied by the clear ringing tones of the hautboys and clarinets. Now and then is

1508

heard the clashing sound of cymbals, deadened by the drums. A thousand feet trample on

1509

the dusty road. Majestic abbots in high lama hats and purple mantles, young

1510

*getsul*

1511

or novices in shabby garments, officials and commoners, all in one huge crowd follow the

1512

image of the One who incarnates all the hopes of Buddhist Mongolia. Some of the

1513

onlookers prostrate themselves in the dust before the passing images, others murmur

1514

prayers and jostle each other to get nearer to the images. This procession is the

1515

passing of old Mongolia, the country of Incarnate Lamas and gorgeously fantastic

1516

garments—the colorful costumes of the crowd and the deep purple clerical robes are

1517

sharply contrasted with the somber khaki uniforms of the Mongol cavalrymen who line the

1518

path of the procession—symbols of old and new Mongolia.